Caring for Words in a Culture of Lies, 2nd Edition by Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.

Caring for Words in a Culture of Lies

Caring for Words in a Culture of Lies Second Edition

Marilyn McEntyre

This book originated as the 2004 Stone Lectures at Princeton Theological Seminary

William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company Grand Rapids, Michigan

Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. 4035 Park East Court SE, Grand Rapids, Michigan 49546 www.eerdmans.com © 2021 Marilyn McEntyre All rights reserved Published 2021 Printed in the United States of America 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ISBN 978-0-8028-7889-2 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: McEntyre, Marilyn Chandler, 1949– author. Title: Caring for words in a culture of lies / Marilyn McEntyre. Description: Second edition. | Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, [2021] | “This book originated as the 2004 Stone Lectures at Princeton Theological Seminary.” | Includes bibliographical references. | Summary: “An updated edition of a book about using language gracefully and truthfully in a time of twisted public discourse”—Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2020049021 | ISBN 9780802878892 Subjects: LCSH: Truthfulness and falsehood—Religious aspects—Christianity. | Language and languages—Religious aspects—Christianity. Classification: LCC BV4647.T7 M34 2021 | DDC 241/.673—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020049021

In loving memory of Mary and LeGare Chandler and Jack and Effie Chandler, who taught me to speak and to listen and to appreciate the punch line

Contents

A Word of Thanks

An Introductory Word to Readers

Why Worry about Words?

Love Words

Tell the Truth

Don’t Tolerate Lies

Read Well

Stay in Conversation

Share Stories

109

Love the Long Sentence

124

Practice Poetry

139

Attend to Translation

165

vii

Contents

10.

Play

183

11.

Pray

204

12.

Cherish Silence

217

Questions for Discussion

229

Acknowledgments

244

Bibliography

245

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A Word of Thanks

am grateful to Princeton Theological Seminary for offering me the privilege of delivering the Stone Lectures in 2004 that became the core of this book, and to William B. Eerdmans and Mary Hietbrink for their help in bringing it to its present form. I am particularly grateful to George and Deborah Hunsinger, both professors at Princeton Seminary, for their friendship and encouragement in this endeavor. I am grateful to my colleagues in the English and Modern Language Departments at Westmont College for the depth and fidelity I have witnessed in their care for language and story. Over the past twelve years I have learned much from each of them. I am grateful to more students than I can name here who, over thirty years of teaching, have asked questions and crafted sentences that taught me something new about how to use words and listen to them. You know who you are. Thank you. I am grateful to the friends who have recited poems ix

A Word of Thanks

or read aloud or quoted lines they loved or poked holes in propaganda or sustained nourishing conversation into the wee hours. I am grateful to my brother, David, who speaks truth, clearly, to power. I am grateful to each of our children and their sweet spouses and significant others for the ways their words warm my heart. I hope to stay in conversation with you as long as language is given to me. I am grateful for the chance to watch each of our much-loved grandchildren make their way into speech and song and for the many words they already use with wit and grace. And I am deeply grateful, more than words can express, for John. The conversation we share sustains me in the darkest times, keeps me accountable, and makes every day a gift.

An Introductory Word to Readers

Gentle Readers,

he sense of urgency that fueled these reflections on caring for words has grown over years of teaching literature, writing, listening to lectures, sermons, and State of the Union addresses, and seeking ways to impart to the young “the joy of a graceful sentence.” Although the opening chapter is rather darkly diagnostic, I hope you will press on to the remaining chapters, which are meant to offer encouragement. There are gracious and inventive ways to enjoy words and to reclaim them as instruments of love, healing, and peace. All of us who speak, read, write, and listen to each other have opportunities to do that and to foster the kinds of community that come from shared stories and surprising sentences. Because these chapters began as talks given as the Stone Lectures at Princeton Theological Seminary, many of my observations are directed specifically to people of faith who may share my concerns about how to read Scripture xi

An Introductory Word to Readers

and how to take responsibility for the stories Christians hold in trust as heirs of that tradition. I hope, though, that any of you who care about language and story, whether because of your own faith traditions or because of your love for conversation, or for literature, or for children just learning to speak, will find here an invitation to reflect and to act in protection of the gift of language that binds us into human community. If you’ve ever loved and learned a poem by heart, or underlined sentences just because they were beautiful, or labored over a speech about something that mattered, I know we share the concerns and the pleasures of stewards who recognize that we hold a great treasure in trust. It is my hope that a sentence here and there will start a conversation or encourage some of you to speak the truth that is in you, to find a sentence that suffices in a hard time, or simply to listen into the silences where the best words begin. Marilyn McEntyre

xii

Why Worry about Words?

was talking recently about stewardship of resources with a young man who is hoping to make a career in environmental law. We considered the fate of water, soil, animal and plant species, and food systems. In the wake of that invigorating conversation, I found myself musing on the similar problems that beset another precious shared resource: words. Like any other life-sustaining resource, language can be depleted, polluted, contaminated, eroded, and filled with artificial stimulants. Like any other resource, it needs the protection of those who recognize its value and commit themselves to good stewardship. In these essays I’d like to reflect on what it might mean to be good stewards of language—what it might mean to retrieve words from the kinds of misuse, abuse, and distortion to which they’ve been subjected of late, and to reinvigorate them for use as bearers of truth and as instruments of love. Caring for language is a moral issue. Caring for one another is not entirely separable from caring for words. 1

Why Worry about Words?

Words are entrusted to us as equipment for our life together, to help us survive, guide, and nourish one another. We need to take the metaphor of nourishment seriously in choosing what we “feed on” in our hearts, and in seeking to make our conversation with each other life-giving. A large, almost sacramental sense of the import and efficacy of words can be found in early English usage, where conversation appears to have been a term that included and implied much more than it does now: to converse was to foster community, to commune with, to dwell in a place with others. Conversation was understood to be a life-sustaining practice, a blessing, and a craft to be cultivated for the common good. A quaint poem by Edward Taylor offers some sense of this larger notion of conversation: developing the image of the self as God’s “spinning wheel,” Taylor prays, “and make my Soule thy holy Spoole to bee. My conversation make to be thy Reele.”1 The business of gently guiding rough strands pulled from the gathered wool into grooves where they may become fine thread suggests a rich idea of conversation as right, skillful, careful, economical use of what God and nature have provided for our use and protection. To call upon another analogy, if language is to retain its power to nourish and sustain our common life, we have to care for it in something like the way good farmers care 1. Edward Taylor, “Huswifery,” in The Poems of Edward Taylor, ed. Donald E. Stanford (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989), 343.

Why Worry about Words?

for the life of the soil, knowing nothing worth eating can be grown in soil that has been used up, overfertilized, or exposed to too many toxic chemicals. The comparison, I believe, is pertinent, timely, and precise—and urgent. Not that the state of language is a matter for despair: there is much to celebrate in our verbal environment. P oets are featured weekly on public radio; dozens of versions of the English Bible are in print; a few fine comedians are reviving the fine art of political satire; bilingual poets are stretching and enriching public discourse; Billy Collins and Naomi Klein are very likely at their keyboards even as we speak. Libraries offer programs for preschoolers, bookstores still stock Shakespeare, and every summer there’s a theater festival somewhere nearby. PBS and a host of independent media outlets still feature articulate analysts. YouTube offers a world of words, spoken and sung, from rap to opera to poetry slams. The sheer availability of words—written, spoken, and sung—is historically unprecedented. Stewardship of such riches is a weighty responsibility, perhaps never more so than now, because as venues for the spoken and written word abound, so do the varieties of language abuse: propaganda, imprecision, clichés, and cant. Warnings about the consequences of language abuse have been issued before. George Orwell in 1946 and George Steiner in 1959 lamented the way that language, co-opted and twisted to serve corporate, commercial, and political agendas, could lose its resiliency, utility, and beauty. Their arguments are still widely cited. Orwell, for instance, makes this claim: 3

Why Worry about Words?

[The English language] becomes ugly and inaccurate because our thoughts are foolish, but the slovenliness of our language makes it easier for us to have foolish thoughts. The point is that the process is reversible. Modern English, especially written English, is full of bad habits which spread by imitation and which can be avoided if one is willing to take the necessary trouble. If one gets rid of these habits, one can think more clearly, and to think clearly is a necessary first step toward political regeneration: so that the fight against bad English is not frivolous and is not the exclusive concern of professional writers.2

This description, like Orwell’s ominous vision of “newspeak” in 1984, may have an unsettling ring of familiarity. In a similar vein, but rather more bleakly, George Steiner reflects on what actually happened to the German language under the Third Reich: The language was infected not only with . . . great bestialities. It was called upon to enforce innumerable falsehoods, to persuade the Germans that the war was just and everywhere victorious. As defeat closed in . . . the lies thickened to a constant snowdrift. . . . 2. George Orwell, “Politics and the English Language,” in George Orwell: A Collection of Essays (New York: Harcourt, 1946; Harvest edition, 1981), 157.

Why Worry about Words?

He goes on to comment, Languages have great reserves of life. They can absorb masses of hysteria, illiteracy, and cheapness. . . . But there comes a breaking point. Use a language to conceive, organize, and justify Belsen; use it to make out specifications for gas ovens; use it to dehumanize man during twelve years of calculated bestiality. Something will happen to it. . . . Something of the lies and sadism will settle in the marrow of the language. Imperceptibly at first, like the poisons of radiation sifting silently into the bone. But the cancer will begin, and the deep-set destruction. The language will no longer grow and freshen. It will no longer perform, quite as well as it used to, its two principal functions: the conveyance of humane order which we call law, and the communication of the quick of the human spirit which we call grace.3

Steiner makes two other points worth mentioning about the consequences of language abuse: as usable words are lost, experience becomes cruder and less communicable. And with the loss of the subtlety, clarity, and reliability of language, we become more vulnerable to crude exercises of power. 3. George Steiner, Language and Silence: Essays on Language, Literature, and the Inhuman (New York: Atheneum, 1958, 1982), 100–101.

Why Worry about Words?

Remote as we may think we are from the horrors of the German propaganda machine, the applicability of Steiner’s concern to the condition of contemporary American English may be obvious upon brief reflection. The generation of students coming through high schools and universities now expect to be lied to. They know about “spin” and about the profiteering agendas of corporate advertising. They have grown used to the flippant, incessantly ironic banter that passes for conversation and avoid positive claims by verbal backpedaling: “like” before every clause that might threaten to make a distinction one might argue with, and “whatever” after approximations that never reach solid declarative ground. They also recognize, because these corruptions have been so pervasive in their short lifetimes, how much political discourse consists of ad hominem argument, accusation, smear campaigns, hyperbole, broken promises, distortions, and lies. If they’re reading many of the mainstream news magazines and papers or watching network television or following Twitter feeds or browsing social media, they are receiving a daily diet of euphemisms, overgeneralizations, and evasions that pass for political and cultural analysis. Though they are being taught in classrooms to be critical of empty rhetoric and unsupported claims, the debased currency of public discourse is what is available to them, and so their own language resources are diminished and uncertain. They need our help. I don’t know how many times over the past few years I’ve heard students, trying to make sense of the news, lament, 6

Why Worry about Words?

“I don’t know how to tell what to believe!” “How do I tell what’s reliable?” “How do I distinguish what’s true?” Their questions remind me of Wendell Berry’s observation that the two epidemic illnesses of our time, “the disintegration of communities and the disintegration of persons,” are closely related to the disintegration of language. “My impression,” Berry writes, “is that we have seen, for perhaps a hundred and fifty years, a gradual increase in language that is either meaningless or destructive of meaning.”4 We need to mean what we say. And for that purpose, we need to reclaim words that have been colonized and held hostage by commercial and political agencies that have riddled them with distorted meanings. If we dig a little, we will find ourselves abundantly equipped for the task. Simply in terms of the number of available words (over a million), English is one of the richest languages in the world. To point this out is not to suggest that there is less value in other languages. We need them; each of them does something English can’t. But more on that issue later. My primary intention here is to address readers who speak and read English most of the time, so I will focus primarily on the responsibilities of speakers of English, though the general challenge to stewardship of language applies to any speaker on earth. Today the English language has over a million words. The average educated person knows about 20,000 words 4. Wendell Berry, “Standing by Words,” in Standing by Words (Washington, DC: Shoemaker & Hoard, 2005), 14.

Why Worry about Words?

and uses about 2,000 in a week. More than half of the world’s technical and scientific periodicals and three- quarters of the world’s mail are in English. About 80 percent of the information stored in the world’s computers is in English. English is transmitted to more than 100 million people a day by the five largest media conglomerates. But consider these facts about Americans who speak English: • At least 50 percent of the unemployed are functionally illiterate (US Department of Labor Statistics). • The average kindergarten student has seen more than 5,000 hours of television, having spent more time in front of the TV than it takes to earn a bachelor’s degree (Laubach Literacy Action Council). So the models of conversation they have heard have been heavily scripted in ways that allow neither in-the- moment response nor revision. Linguist Barry Sanders, among many others, has demonstrated a direct causal relationship between early television viewing and impaired literacy.5 • Twenty-seven percent of army enlistees can’t read 5. Barry Sanders, A Is for Ox: The Collapse of Literacy and the Rise of Violence in an Electronic Age (New York: Pantheon Books, 1994), 39–44.

Why Worry about Words?

training manuals written at the seventh-grade level (American Council of Life Insurance). • One study of twenty-one- to twenty-five-year-olds showed that 80 percent couldn’t read a bus schedule, 73 percent couldn’t understand a newspaper story, 63 percent couldn’t follow written map directions, and 23 percent couldn’t locate the gross pay-to- date amount on a paycheck stub (Laubach Literacy Action Council). • Twenty-four percent of all American adults do not read a single book in the course of a year (Pew Research Council).

Evidence for Orwell’s claim that “the decline of a language must ultimately have political and economic causes” (not to mention political and economic consequences) appears to be abundant.6 Avoiding that decline requires focused and sustained attention. To maintain usable and reliable language—to be good stewards of words—we have at least to do these three things: (1) deepen and sharpen our reading skills, (2) cultivate habits of speaking and listening that foster precision and clarity, and (3) practice poesis—to be makers and doers of the word. For these purposes we need regularly to exercise the tongue and the ear: to indulge in word play, to 6. Orwell, “Politics and the English Language,” 156.

Why Worry about Words?

delight in metaphor, to practice specificity and accuracy, to listen critically and refuse clichés and sound bites that substitute for authentic analysis. Such deliberate focus on language is not to be simply dismissed as an elitist enterprise. With over 26 million functionally illiterate people in this country, those of us who voluntarily and regularly pick up books, newspapers, and Bibles do, in fact, belong to a privileged group. Our job is not to eschew that privilege, but to use it for the sake of the whole. The following chapters focus on “strategies of stewardship”—practices that may help to retrieve, revive, and renew our precious language resources. Here, though, if we may postpone the pleasure of positive thinking for just a few pages, I want to name more specifically some of the most pervasive problems we currently face in public discourse and mass media. As Thomas Hardy says, “If way to the Better there be, it exacts a full look at the Worst.”7 Think about the kinds of language abuse to which we have become accustomed—perhaps so accustomed that we cease to be offended by them: thoughtless hyperbole, unexamined metaphors, slogans and oversimplifications, grammatical confusion, ungrounded abstractions, and blather. Consider, for example, how often a new product 7. Thomas Hardy, “In Tenebris,” in Thomas Hardy: The Complete Poems, ed. James Gibson (London: Macmillan, 2002), 168.

Why Worry about Words?

or project is touted as the “best ever,” a program as “really exciting,” or a child’s merest effort as “terrific.” Or how words like wonderful, great, fantastic, incredible, and—most regrettably—awesome have progressively lost not only their original meanings but also their precision due to habitual verbal promiscuity. Consider, too, timeworn expressions still in use that confuse important issues—land of opportunity, for instance, a phrase still invoked to describe a country where at this writing the gap between the 1 percent who hold about one-third of our total wealth and the bottom 50 percent who hold about 2 percent of it is greater than in any other developed country. Or developed, for that matter—a term that generally begs the question of how much is destroyed in the process of “developing” industrial and technological infrastructures. Or the description of war as a “job” “we” have to finish, terms that mask the horrors and costs of war and the degree to which the wars waged under our flag put us in more rather than less danger and serve private rather than public interests. Public rhetoric is full of dubious but consequential metaphors and underexamined, anesthetizing phrases that postpone urgent scrutiny of policies and public issues: defending our freedom, fake news, free market. The more candid among those who work for network news media will acknowledge that they are addressing an audience conditioned to a shrinking attention span, partly due to

Why Worry about Words?

rapid-fire messages on Instagram, Twitter, and other social media. Though thoughtful content can be accessed, the temptation to be satisfied by quick synopses and move on is strong, resulting in radical abbreviation of what needs careful qualification. Movements and policies and points of view that deserve explanation are too often summarily accepted or dismissed by a kind of automatic sort-and- sift response to labels (liberal, pro-choice, millennials) and words that end with an “ism” (feminism, socialism, capitalism). Many of us grab our news and cues from headlines. It’s worth remembering that nineteenth-century newspapers didn’t have headlines—only columns of print that left the reader to sort out what was important in the course of reading. Misuse, active deception, and quick, disposable language aren’t the only problems; there is also disuse. As words fall into disuse, the experiences they articulate become less accessible. Think of the wide middle range of experience invoked in Jane Austen’s novels, with their nuance and fine distinctions among feelings and qualities of character—words like agreeable, amiable, affable, genial, and kind—all sounding different affective tonalities. With the loss of such subtleties, and of careful grammatical distinctions (slippage in subject-verb agreement, misplaced apostrophes, inconsistency of tenses—mistakes that undermine clarity), we become more confined to broad strokes that make us careless and so make us care less. Or consider the rich oral and written legacy that 12

Why Worry about Words?

gave depth and range to Martin Luther King’s powerful challenges to racist practices and dehumanizing policies. Language evolves, of course, and we have gained something in the diversity of public discourse by more public affirmation of our multilingual environment. Much of our collective vitality is rooted in the fact that we are, and continue to be, a nation of immigrants, each generation bringing its linguistic cross-pollination. Still, those gains in diversity have continued to be outpaced by a largely homogenized mass media controlled by a small handful of corporations. With all this slippage comes a diminished range of allusion, either to standard works long recognized as “classics” in the West or to the wider range of story, image, and song from world cultures. I have found, for instance, that in many undergraduate classes I often have to explain terms like Pyrrhic victory or sacrificial lamb or jihad. Few Americans now take enough Latin or Greek, or even modern foreign languages, to have much awareness of the ety mological layers of meaning that enrich the words they use. Few of the undergraduates I’ve recently encountered would be likely to recognize the kinship between fabulous as a descriptor for a rock concert and fable, a tale invented to instruct and school the moral imagination. It’s not their fault. But it is their loss. In addition to marking these trends, we must surely acknowledge the danger of living in what journalist Paul Weaver called “a culture of lies” where, as Steiner puts it, 13

Why Worry about Words?

“Argument turns into banter, analysis into fatuous assertion.”8 The drivel (and worse) that fills the airwaves—talk radio, talk shows, talk that passes for news analysis—suggests that too many of us have become willing to accept pretty much anything to stay the threat of silence: more and more talk about less and less, and a firewall of silence around much information that matters. Some of these abuses we not only tolerate but normalize to the point where highly questionable usages become normative. We use war language, for instance, to describe healing. We “battle” depression. We “bombard” infections with antibiotics. We want oncologists who take “aggressive measures.” We use war language to describe sports and, more consequentially, use the language of sports, in turn, to describe war. We use it to describe work. We use it to describe our efforts to solve social problems (war on a virus, for instance), appropriating it even for enterprises inimical to war-making (surely poverty requires gentler forms of compassionate attention than what a “war on poverty” suggests, and a “war on drugs” all too easily turns into a war on people who use drugs for reasons that need to be followed upstream). We inflict corrosive kinds of irony even upon the very young. From Sesame Street onward, sarcasm, mild insults, and ironic banter color and disrupt story or sustained conversation. 8. Steiner, Language and Silence, 141.

Why Worry about Words?

In the midst of these linguistic-social woes, many of the brightest among us isolate and insulate themselves behind walls of technical, professional, and academic jargon. Higher education and academic degrees don’t necessarily equip leaders to sustain functional democracy by speaking to the wider public with clarity, precision, and accuracy. Rather, they often become preoccupied with conversations conducted within and for the benefit of an exclusive guild. Lamenting the ways jargon divides experts into camps and destroys communication with the wider community, linguist John McWhorter comments, “As long as their colleagues understand them, it wouldn’t occur to the postmodernist scholar that there could be anything inappropriate in academic prose so demanding that no one can learn from it beyond their coterie, and so utterly unconcerned with euphony, rhythm, or style.”9 If this is even half-true, it is cause for concern. We need the instruction and precise understanding that scholars and experts can provide. In the interests of being “an informed citizenry,” we need to hold them accountable by demanding from publicly funded institutions information and instruction that is both precise and accessible. The best of our astrophysicists, neuroscientists, and social theorists can rise to this challenge (consider the lively talks and 9. John McWhorter, Doing Our Own Thing: The Degradation of Language and Music and Why We Should, Like, Care (New York: Gotham, 2004), 244.

Why Worry about Words?

texts by Richard Feynman, for instance, or Oliver Sacks, or Deborah Tannen). “Accessible” doesn’t have to mean “dumbed down.” We have appropriated the language of investment and profit to describe endeavors that ought rightly to remain distinct and free from market considerations. Self-interest and measurable outcomes pervade not only “motivational” seminars in the workplace but even descriptions of educational objectives and churches’ outreach and ministry efforts. To a certain extent, investment, acquisition, competition, and growth are built into the discourse of capitalism. But that discourse itself deserves vigilance: all of us— people of faith in particular—ought to live uncomfortably under the banner of “enlightened self-interest.” (It’s pretty easy to assume our self-interest is enlightened, just as it is to assume our anger is righteous.) The marketing language that dominates descriptions of capitalist discourse obscures a much deeper understanding of the bountiful givenness of all that is, and our familial relationship to all life and to each other. We lose at great cost common expressions that remind us that some things cannot be bought and sold: jubilee; gratuity; the commons; the common good. Some times, places, relationships, and words should not be subjected to the terms of economic transaction. Importing the language of the marketplace into the academy and the church confuses and ultimately subverts the deepest purposes of those institutions. In the case of the academy, that purpose is to promote critical thought 16

Why Worry about Words?

and exchange of ideas free from utilitarian expediencies or coercion by those in positions of political or economic power. In the case of the church, it is to call people to something so radically different from the terms and paradigms of this world that it can be spoken of only in the variegated, complex, much-translated, much-pondered, prayerfully interpreted language of texts that have kept generations of people of faith kneeling at the threshold of unspeakable mystery. So, what are the alternatives? Market language and war language are the dominant idioms of the culture and the currency of much public conversation. By way of an answer, let me return to the ecological analogy. Like food, language has been “industrialized.” Words come to us processed like cheese, depleted of nutrients, flattened and packaged, artificially colored and mass marketed. And just as it takes a little extra effort and intention to find, buy, eat, and support the production of organic foods, it is a strenuous business to insist on usable, flexible, precise, enlivening language. That is to say, in the same way that we have commodified and privatized the earth’s resources—land, water, air (and, more pertinently, airwaves)—we have come to accept words as a commercial product. Just as we have become accustomed to the strip-mining done on hillsides just slightly away from public thoroughfares, so we have become accustomed to practices of light camouflage that 17

Why Worry about Words?

allow us to forget how the rich soil of lively discourse is being depleted. The ecological crisis we are facing might briefly be described in terms of three general problems. First, the ways we provide food, clothing, and shelter for ourselves in the industrialized world—methods of agricultural production, water management, fuel extraction, and resource use—have become unsustainable. Second, terms like productivity, growth, and healthy economy have obscured the idea of stewardship in ways that dull the conscience and blind the eye to practices that are fundamentally destructive of the common good. Third, the radical imbalance in resource distribution and ownership worldwide is unprecedented. “Multinational” corporations largely under US management control a wildly disproportionate amount of the world’s resources and labor. Those of us in the North American church are, as Ron Sider so eloquently put it, “rich Christians in an age of hunger.”10 Practices that benefit us directly harm and deprive others. So, consider the analogies. Our language practices in this culture are unsustainable. We are depleting a precious resource that can only partially and slowly be renewed by active resistance to the forces at work to erode it. The sheer volume of use is another language issue comparable to increased use of electricity, land, and fossil fuels. 10. See Ron Sider, Rich Christians in an Age of Hunger (Nashville: W Publishing Group, 1997).

Why Worry about Words?

I have surveyed students regularly in recent years, asking them how much silence they experience in the course of a day. Most of them report that they do all their studying to background music or in the presence of background conversation. Many of them multitask as they study, fielding instant messages while working on papers that too often exhibit the superficial thought and repetitive, imprecise language that are the inevitable result of work done under such conditions. In other words, even where their intentions are good and their intelligence evident, their environment is glutted with words, sung, spoken, and written to be consumed like disposable products, often becoming buffers against the pain of thought or the spiritual strenuousness of silence. I don’t say this to blame them. Many young people are thoughtfully seeking a way through the morass. But they have been a “target market” their whole lives, played upon by corporate forces so large, relentless, and skillfully camouflaged that many of them have no sense that they are being used and abused by those who define desire and market ready-made satisfaction. Just as they have never known a world without abundant electrical energy and electronic conveniences, so they have enjoyed less silence in their media-saturated world than any previous generation. When I teach Jane Austen, I pause over a description of the Bennett sisters’ hearing the sound of horses’ hooves a mile away and ask students to try to imagine the ambient silences of the 19

Why Worry about Words?

early nineteenth century, where sounds were discrete and distinct, and birdsong and pigs’ snuffles and the sound of squishy mud on a rainy day were not obscured by white noise. The point is this: because they hear so many words so constantly, their capacities to savor words—to pause over them, ponder them, reflect upon them, hear the echoes of ancient cadences, and attune themselves to allusiveness and alliteration—are eroding. I have witnessed this in many of them and, all too often, in myself. The second part of the ecological analogy has to do with the dulling of conscience and the moral implications of careless use of language. We pay a great price for our tolerance of inaccuracy and triteness. (This does not, by the way, mean there’s no room for lively colloquialism or inventive slang or variant usages. Those are all part of the fluidity of a living language. But flux and flexibility are not the same as thoughtless slippage.) Because of the immense influence that English wields around the globe, those of us who speak English have tremendous power and consequently tremendous responsibility. The legacy of the English Bible alone is at least equivalent to owning all the oil in the Middle East (perhaps an odious comparison). It gives its readers unequaled power in shaping global discourse. Consider the implications of this power for speakers of languages that have only recently emerged from predominantly oral to written cultures, for speakers of “dy20

Why Worry about Words?

ing” languages, and for speakers of languages and dialects restricted to local use. The very scope of English makes it a ready instrument of empire. It bears within it the imperial history of Britain and America, which includes a highly developed discourse of justification for colonialism and domination (consider terms like errand in the wilderness, new world, virgin land, manifest destiny, advancement, and progress) that can’t be eradicated simply by legislation or policy, but need to be addressed at the level of language itself—the stories we tell “ourselves” about “ourselves,” the euphemisms in which we cloak our greed, the biases that favor the point of view of the privileged. This brings me to my final point: Those of us who preach and teach and minister to each other need to focus on words more explicitly, intentionally, and caringly as part of the practice of our trade. This is necessary and urgent activism: to resist “newspeak,” to insist on precision and clarity, to love the bald statement, the long sentence, the particular example, the extended definition, the specifics of story, and the legacy of language we carry in our Bibles and on the shelf with Shakespeare. We are stewards of treasures that have been put into our keeping. We’re not doing too well with fossil fuels and wetlands. I commend those causes to you as well. But along with them, conversation itself—the long conversation that is the warp and woof of civil and communal life—is in need of preservation and renewal. 21

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Peter’s admonition to “be sober, be watchful” applies to this ongoing work. Noticing how things are put, noticing what is being left out or subverted, takes an active habit of mind. But what is our task as “people of the book” if not to cherish the word? The Holy One who became, as T. S. Eliot so beautifully put it, “word within a word, unable to speak a word,” has put power into our hands and on our tongues. It is up to us to use it to good purpose.

Love Words

y favorite scene in the 1987 movie Broadcast News is the moment when young Aaron, who has just graduated as valedictorian of his high school class, is attacked in the schoolyard after the ceremonies by two roughnecks whose object seems to be to show him who’s boss. As they run off, Aaron picks himself up and, considering how to deliver the unkindest cut possible, hollers after them by way of revenge, “You’ll never know the joy of writing a graceful sentence!” Care of language begins in that experience of joy. Or simply in loving the graceful sentence—loving lines like Hopkins’s “He fathers forth whose beauty is past change” for their theological vision, or Frost’s “For I have had too much / Of apple-picking: I am overtired / Of the great harvest I myself desired” for its quiet truth about the relinquishment that comes with age.1 Loving the Jacobean 1. Gerard Manley Hopkins, “Pied Beauty,” in Poems and Prose of Gerard Manley Hopkins, ed. W. H. Gardner (Baltimore: Pen-

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elegance of “he maketh me to lie down in green pastures” enough not to forsake the King James Bible altogether; or Mary Oliver’s insistence that “each pond with its blazing lilies / is a prayer heard and answered lavishly . . .”2 We gather these gifts as we go along—lines from poems, verses from Scripture, quips, turns of phrase, or simply words that delight us. We use them in moments of need. We share them with friends, and we reach for them in our own dark nights. They bring us into loving relationship with the large, loose “communion of saints” who have written and spoken truths that go to the heart and the gut and linger in memory. Our task as stewards of the word begins and ends in love. Loving language means cherishing it for its beauty, precision, power to enhance understanding, power to name, power to heal. And it means using words as instruments of love. Caring for words in this sense does not necessarily come with education. John McWhorter, whom I cited earlier, comments on the curious loss among literate Americans of affective relationship to words—attunedness to the aesthetic dimension of words themselves that would once have prompted compliments on a speaker’s “beautiful English.” “The French waiter who processes the smallguin Books, 1961), 30; and Robert Frost, “After Apple-Picking,” in The Poetry of Robert Frost (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1969), 68. 2. Mary Oliver, “Morning Poem,” in New and Selected Poems (Boston: Beacon, 1992), 107.

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est mistake as an injury to a precious artifact,” McWhorter writes, “has a conception of his language fascinatingly distinct from ours.”3 That conception is informed by the sense that the language is a national treasure, that its subtleties and nuances, its imbedded history and the sounds that bind its dialects to land and region are to be celebrated and protected and performed, like the music of Chopin or Debussy or Poulenc. While every language offers unique avenues of understanding and is, linguists argue, adequate to its speakers’ needs, speakers of English can still, without undue pride, be grateful for the fact that we have at our disposal a repository of words and grammatical possibilities singularly enriched by the confluence of multiple language traditions—Latin, Teutonic, Anglo-Saxon, Celtic, French, and, more recently, the languages of colonized nations throughout the British Empire. With due recognition that English bears within it the marks of an imperial past and is heavily indebted to peoples whose language and other resources it has appropriated and controlled, we may still recognize the fact that this multiplicity of influences has given English “unparalleled subtlety and precision,”4 flexibility, and texture. In America, however, gratitude for and pride in the language of Shakespeare and Tyndale compete with a 3. John McWhorter, Doing Our Own Thing: The Degradation of Language and Music and Why We Should, Like, Care (New York: Gotham, 2004), 248–49. 4. McWhorter, Doing Our Own Thing, 164.

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curious anti-intellectualism, one manifestation of a false egalitarianism that mocks the objective of true equality. The dumbing-down, oversimplification, or flattened character of public speech may make declamations and documents more accessible, but it deprives us all of a measure of beauty and clarity that could enrich our lives together and, in many cases, protect us from consequential misunderstanding. In more and more venues where speech and writing are required, adequate is adequate. An exhilarating denunciation of rhetorical mediocrity can be found in Mark Twain’s acerbic little essay, “Fenimore Cooper’s Literary Offenses,” in which he observes, When a person has a poor ear for music, he will flat and sharp right along without knowing it. He keeps near the tune, but it is not the tune. When a person has a poor ear for words, the result is a literary flatting and sharping; you perceive what he is intending to say, but you also perceive that he doesn’t say it. This is Cooper. He was not a word-musician. His ear was satisfied with the approximate word.5

Yet to choose to go beyond adequate is sometimes to risk accusations of elitism, pretentiousness, or pedantry. 5. Mark Twain, “Fenimore Cooper’s Literary Offenses,” in The Unabridged Mark Twain, ed. Lawrence Teacher (Philadelphia: Running Press, 1976), 1249.

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Let us consider what “beyond adequate” looks like— what caring, careful, grateful, playful, joyful, loving use of words might entail and yield. Some years ago I edited a little collection of essays called Word Tastings. The invitation to each contributor was to focus on a single word that he or she for any reason found intriguing, complex, haunting, curious, interestingly ambiguous, troubling, or delightful. The essays were not academic, though some reflected on word history, usage, and lexical variations. Most of them served as reminders that the Oxford English Dictionary, used with the proper light touch, can be a source of entertainment, amusement, and surprise. These essays offered a surprising range of reflections on the richness and depth of ordinary words. I wanted to do a collection like this because it has been my experience that it is hard to get people to look at words instead of through them. When the collection came out, I began to hear from readers who, along with gratifying enthusiasm, wanted to share their own favorite words for future consideration. Everyone I heard from seemed to have a favorite word or two that merited discussion, opened floodgates of memory, or simply “tasted” good. “I don’t know why—I’ve always just liked that word,” people said about words as varied as sycophant, asteroid, obstreperous, and fleece. These responses confirmed for me that there is, in all of us, a hunger for words that satisfy—not just words that do 27

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the job of conveying requests or instructions or information, but words that give a pleasure akin to the pleasures of music. Most of us, most of the time, use language the way we use windows; we look “through” words to ideas, objects, sensations, landscapes of meaning. Occasionally that window glass becomes a mirror, and hearing our own words, we suddenly recognize something about ourselves. And sometimes words become objects of interest in themselves. Suddenly we notice them. We see and hear them the way poets do, as having vitality and delightfulness independent of their utility. Language may suddenly appear not as a drably utilitarian system of reference, but as a dance—words at play—words not just meaning or reporting or chronicling or marching in syntactic formation, but performing themselves, sounding, echoing, evoking ripples of association and feeling, moving in curious sidelong figures rather than left to right in orderly lines. Freed of their quotidian functionality, words flit and land in odd places, or hover in the general vicinity of some thought that provides at best only a temporary resting place. Thus at large, words, like smells, trigger memories. We all have a private vocabulary of words associated with particular significant moments. Psychoanalysts have built an empire on this truth simply by paying systematic attention to word associations and considering the immanent logic of the connections people make between one word and another. The fact that the word lilac recalls the wallpaper in a grandmother’s bathroom for one, a line from Whit28

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man for another, or a feeling of inexplicable sadness for yet another testifies to the way words constellate complex, shifting, layered patterns of meaning and feeling. Psychoanalysts aren’t the only ones who rely on this property of words for their stock in trade. Poets invite and enable us to hear old words new; they lure us to lower our defenses against the very associations words threaten to evoke. We expend, it seems, a good deal of mental energy daily keeping our filtering systems running, screening out the overtones, contaminants, stray bits of memory words carry. Pressed into conventional service day after day, words, like people, can diminish; they become weary; some drop out of service altogether. Only a poetic act can restore their natural versatility, virtuosity, and capacity to surprise. The pleasure of a word is quite distinct from the pleasure of an idea. An assignment to write about the word piano is likely to take us down a very different path from an article on “the piano” (the history thereof, acoustics and soundboards, pianos I have known, and so on). Part of the pleasure lies in the way they stretch and accommodate: words never quite “fit” the concepts or experiences they represent. As Eliot reminded us, they “slip, slide, perish, / Decay with imprecision, will not stay in place, / Will not stay still.”6 Even words for solid, sensible objects—ball, 6. T. S. Eliot, Burnt Norton, in The Complete Poems and Plays of T. S. Eliot (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1971), 121.

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saxophone, lake—become trailheads for surprising and circuitous journeys through history, memory, and the back roads of lexicography. But if those journeys leave readers “tasting” their own words, loving them for their pungency, their sharpness, their smoothness, or even their sting, then the dictionaries have served their purposes and something worthwhile has been preserved. The pleasure of savoring words cannot be attained without some reclamation work. Words have to be “taken back,” brushed off, and sometimes healed. The business of reclaiming words from erosion or other damage might be seen as a project in species preservation. English— American English in particular, as we have said—has already suffered severe losses in a spreading epidemic of hyperbole. Streamlined and simplified popular media and textbooks have forced fewer and fewer words to serve the purposes of public discourse, so we sustain losses in nuance and precision whose consequences have not yet been fully recognized. As the internet opens up more independent avenues of discussion, more vigorous analysis and debate offsets some of the diminishments suffered by mainstream corporately controlled media. That is its own discussion, and a timely one. It’s clear that the internet is a two-edged and powerful tool, able to disseminate unprecedented amounts both of valuable information and of mis- or disinformation. Sorting becomes part of our responsibility as citizens, and we can’t do that alone; we need 30

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to be building circles of trust in which we sift and reflect on what we see. Some of this happens on social media, some of it in indispensable personal conversation among friends who keep each other accountable. In the course of all this, we exchange words, hone them for new uses, and dust off some that need to be repurposed for new circumstances— climate change, pandemic, shifting geopolitics, changing educational and social landscapes. Reclamation is an important part of word work. When a word falls into disuse, the experience goes with it. We are impoverished not only by the loss of a precise descriptor, but by the atrophy and extinction of the very thing it describes. Think about grand old words like proper, prudent, sensible, noble, honorable, and merry. Have you ever heard a friend returning from a party describe how merry it was? Unless you’re very, very old, I suspect not. The word survives in American usage almost exclusively as a vestigial reminder of certain obligatory feelings of good cheer around Christmastime. But merriment itself seems to belong to a place beyond the looking glass—something we can imagine wistfully as we step into the world of Dickens but can’t bring back into the milieu of the contemporary cocktail party. Merriment seems to evoke two conditions of community life we have largely lost: a common sense of what there is to laugh about, and a certain mental health—what William James would have called “healthy-mindedness”— that understands darkness but doesn’t succumb to cynicism. Merriment has fallen into near extinction by a disuse 31

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that both signals and hastens the demise of such feelings. Wendell Berry’s writing offers examples of language reclaimed and put to good use for contemporary purposes. Without pretension he retrieves words like provident, kinsmen, courtship, mirth, and chastisement. Let us pause here and reflect on one example of this kind of casualty. Felicity is a good case in point—a loss to the language of emotional life whose disappearance deprives us of a particular dimension of happiness. Felicity is a kind of happiness our culture does not, on the whole, promote: something like rational contentment, entailing acceptance, considered compromise, and self-knowledge. When Elizabeth Bennett, Jane Austen’s intelligent and critical-minded heroine, listens to her sister’s suitor pouring out his hopes for his own and his beloved’s happiness, the author writes of her, she had to listen to all he had to say, of his own happiness, and of Jane’s perfections; and in spite of his being a lover, Elizabeth really believed all his expectations of felicity to be rationally founded, because they had for basis the excellent understanding, and superexcellent disposition, of Jane, and a general similarity of feeling and taste between her and himself.7 7. Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice (1813; New York: Bantam, 2003), 357.

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This kind of considered happiness, pursued with a clear eye toward economic stability, compatible temperament, and self-control, contrasts sharply with the kind of happiness marketed in movies that focus on falling in love against all odds, throwing caution to the winds, following the passions, and losing oneself in a rush of sensation. Felicity has more to do with finding oneself. The word has a venerable history. From the Latin felix, it is linked in the liturgy of the Latin mass with the good that comes out of and in spite of evil: “O Felix culpa . . .”— “O blessed fault, O happy sin of Adam, that merited such a redeemer. . . .” In this instance, happiness is an unexpected gift, only recognized as happiness in long retrospect, paradoxical in the way it is linked to pain and loss. Like the old rabbi in a traditional Hasidic tale who responded to tales of triumph with “How do you know it’s not a disaster?” and to tales of misfortune with “How do you know it’s not a blessing?,” the person who understands felicity understands that happiness changes as it ripens, and that the unripe fruit is often bitter. Happiness of this kind is, in fact, more a point of view than a state of affairs. When I told a dejected young student recently that I thought happiness was often a matter of deciding to be happy, she looked at me as if I was not only cold-hearted and unsympathetic, but couldn’t possibly, with such an attitude, have a clue about what disappointment felt like. Such observations can sound glib,

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I admit. Yet I think they can be much-needed correctives to the commodified notion of happiness that links it so insistently with getting, spending, having, consuming, and receiving the blessings of privilege without much reference to the burdens of payment. There’s not much glamour in contentment, or much dramatic value, which may be the payoff that keeps some people in a state of perpetual crisis and discontent. But contentment is more durable than excitement or the quick thrill and, like rich soil that has been given necessary fallow time, may equip a person for a fuller harvest of satisfactions and a longer period of productivity than the synthetic quick fix of instant satisfaction. But felicity includes something beyond simple contentment. Felicity not only accepts what is, acknowledging and cheerfully submitting to the limitations of one’s condition; it also unabashedly wills and seeks pleasure. Its pleasures are more subtle than sensational. Felicity comes in lively, sustained conversation; in long walks on which one notices small changes in the landscape; in the silent companionship of an old friend or partner; in serving a good dinner to a family one loves. Felicity seeks happiness actively, but its actions are quiet and measured rather than flamboyant and impulsive. It deepens by having reflected enough on one’s own good to realize that one’s own good consists in appreciation and service of others. I think of felicity as a sign of wisdom. The handful of people I know whom I would call truly wise are also happy, and the particular quality of happiness they have in com34

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mon is felicity. They love a good story that makes a point as it makes you laugh. They live simply, but not meanly, and love to lift the lid of the soup pot and savor the smell of vegetables mingling. They love good company and cherish solitude. They care for children unsentimentally and do not spoil them. They are able to say no to what does not suit their purposes. They are, in their various ways, markedly articulate. This last item may seem unlike the rest: Why would happiness have anything to do with being articulate? Yet when we talk about “felicity of expression” (a common usage cited in the Random House Dictionary) we link happiness to skill—specifically to verbal skill. A felicitous word choice is one that so precisely names an idea or experience that it produces for the reader or hearer a shock of recognition, a surprised “Yes! That’s it!” and a gratifying sense of having put two interlocking pieces of a puzzling world perfectly in place. Precision of expression is neither taught nor appreciated in a culture that has prostituted language in the service of propaganda. To the degree that we consent to cheap hyperbole, flip slogans, and comfortably unexamined claims, we deprive ourselves of the felicity of expression that brings things worth looking at into focus—things like happiness, for instance, which comes so much clearer and seems so much richer when we see it displayed in an array of distinctive shades: merriment, blitheness, gaiety, delight, contentment, joy, bliss, felicity itself. But perhaps, if 35

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what I told my student is true, that happiness is a decision. We can fall prey to the flattening of words and experience, and so diminish the variety and quality of happiness, or we can retrieve the words that name forms of happiness worth pursuing and, by returning them to good and careful use, rediscover felicity. Felicity of expression, however, requires a certain amount of unglamorous detail work. One of the minor annoyances associated with being introduced as an English teacher is the frequent, by-now unfunny response, “Oh—well, then, I’d better watch my grammar.” I’m tempted these days, rather than deflecting such inanities with weak, polite laughter, to take on the schoolmarmy stereotype and answer, “Yes, you’d better!” I am moved, while speaking of love of language, to say a kind word for subordinate clauses and semicolons and for versatile participles and verbs that give honest accountings of process. A dear colleague to whom I take my occasional uncertainties about etymology and grammatical conundrums commented, after musing over an oddly unclassifiable construction, “Every grammar leaks.” The rules of grammar as we know them don’t account for all linguistic possibilities; they offer a map of relations in something like the way Newton’s physics accounts for a fair range of phenomena but falls short of Einstein’s more comprehensive paradigm. Indeed, as Barry Sanders points out, “Breaking the hold that simple grammatical construction has on language [as 36

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in poetry] permits us to gain a fresh insight on old things— everyday experience, commonplace ideas—in a radically new way.”8 Moreover, linguists not only have changed the terms in which we were taught to describe the relations of words to one another, but widely dispute the notion of “correct” grammar as a concept that overlooks the inherent fluidity, liveliness, and invention of spoken language. Street speech in urban cultures, like local dialects of many cultures, makes its own contribution to revitalizing the music of language and refocusing our hearing. But simple ignorance of basic grammatical understanding is not in itself a virtue. And I still believe that respect for the ability to apply well the rhetorical power of skillfully constructed sentences is important in keeping the instrument sharp for skillful use. This is not the place or time for a theory of grammar, but I do want to pause and celebrate, individually, the invaluable work that is accomplished in their decent and orderly way by particular parts of speech. First, the preposition, which we love for its startling power to affirm and reframe relationships. Think, for instance, how much prepositional theology is imbedded in the words of the hymn taken from an ancient Celtic prayer, “St. Patrick’s Breastplate”: 8. Barry Sanders, A Is for Ox: The Collapse of Literacy and the Rise of Violence in an Electronic Age (New York: Pantheon Books, 1994), 66.

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Christ be with me, Christ within me, Christ behind me, Christ before me, Christ beside me, Christ to win me, Christ to comfort and restore me. Christ beneath me, Christ above me, Christ in quiet, Christ in danger, Christ in hearts of all that love me, Christ in mouth of friend and stranger.

Each of those prepositions—with, within, behind, before, beside, beneath, above, and in—opens an avenue of reflection on the mysterious and manifold nature of relationship to Christ—how Christ leads, accompanies, backs us up, holds us up, protects, sustains, indwells. Or think of the rhetorical formula we still cling to as Americans who still share some common vision of constitutional democracy in “a government of the people, by the people, and for the people,” each preposition making its own political claim, bearing its own vision of justice. Though we continue to have our regional differences about whether we stand “in” line or “on” line, and though there remains some play of meaning around what’s “in” and what’s definitely “not on,” prepositions, even at their most idiosyncratic, do good service in the ways they locate and organize and help us, as Henry James put it, to “understand things in relation,” which, he claimed, is the only way they can be rightly understood. And let’s hear a little praise for the undersung conjunctions that hold together the parts of things until we 38

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can envision the whole. Those that subordinate give us whole theories of history: because and since and although excusing or indicting in swift, single strokes the decisions of kings or the deceptions of demagogues, explaining the fall of Rome or the czar’s victory over a foolish emperor. And even the lowly coordinators and, but, and or pry away the blinders that would let us see anything in isolation. And the modifiers—overused, hackneyed, and redundant as they often are—can sharpen our vision like lenses. Spacious and squalid, darkling and sullen, luminous and undulant, they give us tools to distinguish and compare and somehow grasp qualities that might otherwise escape the eye or the searching heart. And nouns—those originating instruments of human governance and stewardship. All those Peterson’s Guides that give us the names of flora and fauna, the apples and balls and cats that launched us on our alphabetical way, the visual dictionaries that assure us that every screw and bolt and thingamajig has a legitimate name reaffirm the solidity and stability and security we find in the names of persons, places, and things. We rely on the relations between words and things. As Wendell Berry puts it in Standing by Words, the “relation of speaker, word, and object must be conventional; the community must know what it is.”9 We even affirm the goodness of young parents’ 9. Wendell Berry, “Standing by Words,” in Standing by Words (Washington, DC: Shoemaker & Hoard, 2005), 25.

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freedom to name their children after trees or honeymoon resorts or rock stars because they have taken part in the work of creation, and the gift of naming is a due reward. Mere lists of nouns can be poetry. Think, for example, of Hopkins’s exuberant inventory in “Pied Beauty”: Glory be to God for dappled things— For skies of couple-colour as a brinded cow; For rose-moles all in stipple upon trout that swim; Fresh-firecoal chestnut-falls; finches’ wings; Landscape plotted & pieced—fold, fallow, & plough; And all trades, their gear & tackle & trim.10

He ends, of course, with a cry of praise for the one who “fathers forth” all this abundance of particulars. So we love nouns and the material blessings they bestow. But most of all I want before we leave this little tour of parts of speech to give thanks for verbs. We depend on them to reveal the dance of the whole dynamic universe, from orbiting electrons to sucking undertows to swiftly tilting planets. We entwine them in sentences like strands to describe the complex weave of events. A single verb can change our sense of what it is we are witnessing, as when Mary Oliver writes of preying vultures, “they minister to

10. Hopkins, “Pied Beauty,” 30.

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the grassy miles.”11 Who can think of vultures in quite the same way after realizing that they “minister”? Good verbs can expose the deep heart roots of the most ordinary acts, as in Robert Frost’s line about apple picking: “There were ten thousand thousand fruit to touch, / cherish in hand, lift down, and not let fall.”12 Sometimes nouns become verbs because they can’t sit still any longer; so things catapult and flame, and meetings are chaired. Verbs, I think, matter most. Asked for his name, God gave Moses a verb. And even those of us who are, as Cummings put it, “human merely being” can’t be contained in nouns, even buttressed by the best adjectives, but when we are most alive burst and blossom into verbs like Van Gogh’s trees and leaping fields. We care for words when we use them thankfully, recognizing in each kind a specific gift borne in the mother tongue, bestowed at birth as a legacy from the Word who was in the beginning.

11. Oliver, “Vultures,” in New and Selected Poems, 155. 12. Frost, “After Apple-Picking.”