The Symbolic Life Miscellaneous Writings Carl Jung CW18 Part2 by Jihad Allam

IX THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE (related to Volume 8 of the Collected Works)

FOREWORDS TO JUNG: "UBER PSYCHISCHE ENERGETIK UND DAS WESEN DER TRAUME" 1 First Edition ( 1928) I I Io

In this volume, the second of the Psychologische Abhandlungen, ~ I am publishing four papers of which three have so far appeared only in English. 3 One of the papers deals with the still unsolved problem of dream interpretation, while the others are concerned with-in my view-a question of central importance: the fundamental psychic factors, the dynamic images, which it seems to me express the nature of psychic energy. My concept of psychic energy, first put forward in W andlungen und S)â&#x20AC;˘mbole der Libido 4 ( I 9 I 2), has met with so much opposition and misunderstanding that it seemed to me worth working over the problems of psychic energetics once again, this time not from the practical but from the theoretical side. The reader, therefore, need fear no repetitions. Kusnacht-Zurich 1928 Second Edition ( 1948)

I I 11

The papers in this volume are attempts to introduce some order into the chaotic profusion of psychic phenomena by means of concepts that are current in other fields of research besides psychology. Since our psychological knowledge is still in its infancy, our primary [Originally titled Cber die Energetik der Seele.] series of psychological publications edited by Jung. See addenda, par. 1825.] 3 [''General Aspects of Dream Psychology," first published as "The Psychology of Dreams," in Collected Papers on Analytical Psychology ( 1916) ; "Instinct and the Unconscious," first published in the British Journal of Psychology, X: I (I 9 I 9) ; "The Psychological Foundations of Belief in Spirits," first published in Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, XXXI: 79 (May, 1920). The latter two papers were reprinted in Contributions to Analytical Psychology ( 1928), together with the fourth paper, "On Psychic Energy." All four papers are in C.W., vol. 8.] 4 [Trans. as Psychology of the Unconscious (1916); revised edn., Symbols of Transformation, C.W., vol. 5.] 1

~[A

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concern must be with elementary concepts and groups of facts, and not with the individual complications in which our case histories abound, and which can never be completely elucidated. The Freudian "model" of neurosis and dreams gives only a partial explanation of the empirical material. As medical psychologists, we must seek to refine our methods as well as our psychological concepts, more particularly because the "academic" psychologists have abandoned the attempt to investigate the unconscious empirically. It falls to the lot of the medical psychologist to probe more deeply into the compensatory relationship between conscious and unconscious which is so vital for an understanding of the psyche as a whole. Except for some improvements I have made no drastic alterations to the text. The number of papers has been increased to six, a~ I have added a short "Review of the Complex Theory" and some recent aper<;us on dream research, "On the ~ature of Dreams." 1 Kusnacht-Zurich, May 1947 1

[Both in C.W., vol. 8.]

0:'\ HALLUCil'\ATI0:'\ 1 I I I3

I I I4

Hallucination is not merely a pathological phenomenon but one that also occurs in the sphere of the normal. The history of prophecy as well as experiences among primitives show that psychic contents not infrequently come to consciousness in hallucinatory form. In this respect only the form is worthy of note, not the function, which is nothing other than what is commonly called a "brain wave" [Einfall]. As the word itself indicates, a certain spontaneity attaches to the phenomenon; it is as though the psychic content had a life of its own and forced its way into consciousness by its own strength. This peculiarity probably explains the ease with which the brain wave assumes an hallucinatory character. Common speech is familiar with these transitions from brain wave to hallucination. In the mildest cases we say: "I thought"; "it occurred to me" is a little stronger; stronger still is "it was as though an inner voice said," and finally "it was as though someone were calling to me," or "I heard a voice quite distinctly." Hallucinations of this kind usually derive from the still subliminal, maturer personality which is not yet capable of direct consciousness, as observations of somnambulists show. In the case of primitive medicine-men they come from a subliminal thinking or intuiting which at that level is not yet capable of becoming conscious. 1 [Contribution to a discussion at a meeting of the Schweizerische Gesellschaft fur Psychiatrie, Prangins (near Geneva), I933Âˇ Trans. from the Proceedings in

Schweizer Archilâ&#x20AC;˘ fur Ne!lrologie !lnd Psychiatrie, XXXII (I933): 2, 382.]

FOREWORD TO SCHLEICH: ''DIE WU:'\DER DER SEELE .. 1 1 1 15

When, after many years, I again took up the works of Carl Ludwig Schleich and tried to capture the mental world of this remarkable thinker in a telling image, what persistently came into my mind was the indelible impression which another powerful thinker-very unlike Schleich and yet so very like him-had made upon me: Paracelsus. Odd bedfellows indeed-the contemporary of the humanists and the modern, forward-looking Schleich, separated by four centuries of spiritual growth and change, not to speak of differences of personality. The very idea would have struck me as preposterous had I not been strangely moved just by the affinity of opposites. :\bO\路e all, it seemed to me significant that Paracelsus stood at the beginning of an epoch in the history of medicine and Schleich at its end. Both were typical representatives of a period of transition, and both of them revolutionaries. Paracelsus cleared the way for scientific medicine, benighted at times by age-old animistic beliefs yet filled with the liveliest apprehension of an age in \vhich the intangibles of the soul would be replaced by a massive materialism. Schleich was a revolutionary in the opposite sense. Although steeped in anatomical and physiological concepts, he boldly reached out towards the very same psychic realm upon which Paracelsus, obeying the dictates of his age, had half -reluctantly turned his back. Both were enthusiasts, uplifted and fortified by the certitudes of their vision, optimistically credulous, rejoicing in their hopes, pioneers of a new spiritual outlook who went their head-spinning way sure-footed and undismayed. Both gazed fearlessly into suprahuman, metaphysical abysses and both avowed their faith in the eternal images deeply engra..-ed in the human psyche. Paracelsus' way took him down to the di\路ine but essentially preChristian prima materia, the "Hyliaster." 2 Schleich, starting from 1

[Berlin. I 934路 A collection of essays. Schleich ( 1859- I 9221. Gt>rman surgeon and \1-riter. discon-red local anaesthesia. Cf. his autobiographical Those Were Good Days.' trans. by B. ~Iiall (I 936) .] ~ ["Paracelsus as a Spiritual Phenomenon" (C.W .. \路ol. 131. pars. 170f. ( "lliaster" \ .J

SCHLEICH:

"DIE WUNDER DER SEELE''

the darkness of the blood vessels, ducts, and the labyrinth of the nerve-endings, mounted the ganglionic ladder of the sympathetic nervous system to a transcendental soul which appeared to him in all its Platonic glory in the "supracelestial place." Both were inspired by the effervescence of an age of decay and change. Both were born out of their time, eccentric figures eyed askance by their contemporaries. One's contemporaries are always dense and never understand that enthusiasm, and what appears to them to be unseemly ebullience come less from personal temperament than from the still unknown well-springs of a new age. How people looked askance at Nietzsche's volcanic emotion, and how long he will be spoken of in times to come! Even Paracelsus has now been gratefully disinterred after four hundred years in an attempt to resuscitate him in modern dress. What will happen with Schleich? We know that he was aiming at that unitary vision of psychic and physical processes which has given the strongest impetus to medical and biological research today. Though hampered by a terminology inherited from an age of scientific materialism, he broke through the narrow confines of a de-psychized materiality and crossed the threshold, barricaded with thorny prejudices, which separated the soul from the body. And though he had no knowledge of my own efforts, which for a long time remained unknown to the scientific public in Germany, in his ovm way he fought shoulder to shoulder with me for the recognition of the soul as a factor sui generis, and thus broke a new path for psychology, which till then had been condemned to get along without a psyche. I i6 The breakthrough initiated by Paracelsus led the way out of medieval scholasticism into the then unknown world of matter. This is the great and essential senÂˇice which has placed medicine forever in his debt. And it is not isolated facts, methods, or laws which make Schleich important for us, but his pushing forward into a new field of vision where the mass of known facts appears in a new and different light. By syncretizing all our previous knowledge and seeking a standpoint from which to gain a view of the whole, he succeeded in escaping from the charmed circle of pure empiricism and touched upon the very foundation of the empirical method itself, though most people are quite unaware of it. This fundamental thing is the relation of the body's chemistry to psychic life. Paracelsus ultimately decided in favour of "chemism," despite his allegiance to a view of the world dominated by the spirit as the highest authority. Schleich, four hundred years later, decided in favour

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IX. THE STRCCTl'RE A):D DY):AMICS OF THE PSYCHE

of psychic animation, and thus raised the psyche from its undignified position as a subsidiary product to that of the auctor rerum. With a bold stroke he put the mechanisms and chemisms of the body in a new hierarchy. The "vestigial' sympathetic nervous system, an apparently fortuitous tangle of ganglionic nodes that regulate the vegetative functions of the body in an astoundingly purposi':e way, becomes the matrix of the cerebrospinal system, whose crowning miracle, the brain, seems to our fascinated gaze the controller of all bodily processes. Nay more: the sympathetic system is, for Schleich, the mysterious "cosmic nerve," the true "ideoplast," the original and most immediate realization of a body-building and body-sustaining World Soul, which was there before mind and body came into existence. The Hyliaster of Paracelsus is thus stripped of its unfathomable creative secret. Once again the solidity and tangibility of matter, so fervently believed in and so convincing to the senses, dissolve into Maya, into a mere emanation of primordial thought and will, and all hierarchies and all values are reversed. The intangible, the psyche, becomes the ground and substrate, and the "merely vegetative" sympathetic system the possessor and realizer of unthinkable creative secrets, the vehicle of the life-giving World Soul, and, ultimately, the architect of the brain, this newest achievement of the pre-existent creative will. What lay modestly hidden beneath the overwhelming grandeur of the cerebrospinal system, which, as the vehicle of consciousness, seems to be identical with the psyche as such-this same sympathetic system is "psyche" in a deeper and more embracing sense than is the interplay of the cortical fields of the cerebrum. Notwithstanding its quantitative and qualitative insignificance, it is the exponent of a psyche far excelling consciousness both in depth and scope, and is not, like this, defencelessly exposed to the potions of the endocrine system, but itself creates these magical secretions with single-minded purposiveness. I I 17 Just as Paracelsus laboured to concoct sylphids and succubi out of mandrakes, hangman's amulets, and the blackest folk-medicine in his alchemical retort while yet having intimations of the truth, so Schleich spoke the language of the best "brain mythology" of the pre-war era and yet penetrated into the deepest problems and symbols of the human psyche, following his inner intuition and without knowing what he was doing. His soaring imagination transmuted figures of speech into forms which, unbeknownst to him, are actually archetypes of the collectin unconscious that manifest 464

SCHLEICH;

"DIE WUNDER DER SEELE"

themselves wherever introspection seeks to plumb the depths of the psyche, as for instance in Indian and Chinese yoga. I 11 8 Schleich was thus a pioneer not only in somatic medicine but also in the remoter reaches of psychology, where it coalesces with the vegetative processes of the body. This is without doubt the darkest area of all, which scientific research has long sought to elucidate in vain. It is just this darkness which fascinated Schleich's mind and let loose a spate of imaginative ideas. Though they were not based on any new facts, they will certainly stimulate new interpretations and new modes of observation. As the history of science shows, the progress of knowledge does not always consist in the discovery of facts but, just as often, in opening up new lines of inquiry and in formulating hypothetical points of view. One of Schleich's favourite ideas was that of a psyche spread through the whole of the body, and dependent more on the blood than on grey matter. This is a brilliant notion of incalculable import. It enabled him to reach certain conclusions as to the way in which the psychic processes are determined, and these conclusions have independently confirmed my own research work. I am thinking chiefly of the historical factors determining the psychic background, as formulated in my theory of the collective unconscious. The same might be said of the mysterious connections between the psyche and the geographical locality, which Schleich linked up with dietetic differences-a possibility that should not be dismissed out of hand. When one considers the remarkable psychic and biological changes to which European immigrants are subject in America,'] one cannot help feeling that in this matter science has still a number of important problems to solve. 1119 Although Schleich's thought and language were wholly dependent on the data of the body, he was nevertheless impressed by the incorporeal nature of the psyche. What struck him about dreams was their spacelessness and timelessness, and for him hysteria was a "metaphysical problem"-metaphysical because the "ideoplastic" capacities of the unconscious psyche were nowhere more palpably in evidence than in the neuroses. Marvelling he gazed at the bodily changes wrought by the unconscious in hysteria. One can see from this almost childlike amazement how new and unexpected such ["The Role of the Unconscious," par. 18; "Mind and Earth,'" pars. 94f; "The Complications of American Psychology," pars. 94 7ff, 9 7of. (all in C.W .. vol. 10) .]

IX. THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE

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observations were for him, although for the psychopathologist they have long been truisms. But one also sees from what generation of medical men he came-a generation blinded by prejudice, that passed unheedingly by the workings of the psyche upon the body, and even with its first, groping steps in psychology believed that the psyche could be dispensed with. Considering this lack of psychological knowledge, it is all the more astonishing and greatly to Schleich's credit that he was able to break through to a recognition of the psyche and to a complete reversal of biological causality. His conclusions seem almost too radical to the psychologist, or at any rate over-audacious, since they trespass upon regions which philosophical criticism must put beyond the bounds of human understanding. Schleich's limited knowledge of psychology and his enthusiasm for intuitive speculation are responsible for a certain lack of reflection and for the occasional shallow patches in his work, for instance, his blindness to the psychic processes in dreams, which he sees through the spectacles of materialistic prejudice. Again, there is no inkling of the philosophical and moral problems that are conjured up by his identification of conscience with the function of hormones. Schleich thus paid tribute to the scientific past and to the spirit of the Wilhelmine era, when the authority of science swelled into blind presumption and the intellect turned into a ravening beast. But he saw very clearly that if medicine considered only the body and had no eyes for the living man, it was doomed to stultification. For this reason he turned away from the investigation of mere facts and used his knowledge of biology for wider purposes, to construct a bold synoptic view which would eradicate the grave errors of an obsolete materialism. The nineteenth century did everything it could to bring the psyche into disrepute, and it is Schleich's great achievement to have thrust the psychic meaning of vital processes into the light of day. His works may serve as an introduction to the revolution that has taken place in our general outlook and extricated us from the straitjacket of academic specialism.

FOREWORD TO J:\COBI: "THE PSYCHOLOGY OF C. G. JU:\"G''l rr2r

112 2

The present work, I believe, meets a generally felt need which I myself up to now have not been in a position to satisfy-the wish for a concise presentation of the elements of my psychological theories. My endeavours in psychology have been essentially pioneer work, leaving me neither time nor opportunity to present them systematically. Dr. Jacobi has taken this difficult task upon herself with a happy result, having succeeded in giving an account free from the ballast of technical particulars. It is a synopsis that includes or at least touches upon all essential points, so that it is possible for the reader-with the aid of the references and the bibliography of my writings-to orient himself readily wherever needful. An additional merit is that the text has been supplemented with a number of diagrams, which are a help in understanding certain functional relations. It is a particular satisfaction to me that the author has been able to avoid furnishing any support to the opinion that my researches constitute a doctrinal system. Expositions of this kind slip all too easily into a dogmatic style which is wholly inappropriate to my views. Since it is my firm com·iction that the time for an all-inclusive theory, taking in and describing all the contents, processes, and phenomena of the psyche from one central viewpoint, has not yet arri\·ed, I regard my concepts as tentative attempts to formulate a scientific psychology based in the first place upon immediate experience with human beings. This is not a kind of psychopathology, but a general psychology which also takes cognizance of the empirical material of pathology. [Jolan (or Jolande) Jacobi, Die Psychologie t·on C. G. ]ung (Zurich: Rascher, 1940). Concerning the author ( r890-19j3 1, see infra, par. r 134. The foreword was trans. by K. W. Bash in The Psychology of C. G. Jung (New Ha,·en: Yale Uni\·ersity Press, 1942) ; an edition published the same year by Routledge & Kegan PauL London, omits the foreword. A revised edn. of the entire book, including the foreword, was retrans. by Ralph Manheim and published by both houses, 1962; 8th edn., revised, I9i3· The version published here has been revised by R.F.C. Hull.] 1

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IX. THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE I I

I hope that it may be the lot of this book not only to give the general reader an insight into my researches, but also to save him much laborious searching in his study of them.

August 1939 Foreword to the Spanish Edition 1 I I

It gives me particular pleasure to know that this book is now appearing in a Spanish translation. It will acquaint the Spanish public with the most recent developments of a psychology that has grown out of the experiences of the physician's art. This psychology is concerned with complex psychic phenomena that are continually encountered in daily life. It is not an abstract academic science, but a formulation of practical experiences which remains faithful to the scientific method. As a result, this psychology includes within its scope wide areas of other sciences and of life in general. My \'ery best wishes accompany this book on its journey through the world. 1

[Jolan Jacobi, La Psicologia de C. G. Jung, trans. by Jose M. Sacristan 94 7). The present trans. is from the German ~fS.J

(~Iadrid, I

FOREWORD TO H.-\RDH\G: "PSYCHIC El'\ERGY" 1 This book presents a comprehensive survey of the experiences of analytical practice, a survey such as anyone who has spent many years in the conscientious pursuit of professional duties may well feel the need of making. In the course of time, insights and recognitions, disappointments and satisfactions, recollections and conclusions mount to such proportions that one would gladly rid oneself of the burden of them in the hope not merely of throwing out worthless ballast but also of presenting a summation which will be useful to the world of today and of the future. I I 26 The pioneer in a new field rarely has the good fortune to be able to draw valid conclusions from his total experience. The efforts and struggles, the doubts and uncertainties of his voyage of discovery have penetrated his marrow too deeply to allow him the perspective and clarity of vision needed for a comprehensive survey. Those of the second generation, who base their work on the groping experiments, the lucky hits, the circuitous approaches, the half truths and mistakes of the pioneer, are less burdened and can take more direct roads, envisage more distant goals. They can cast off many doubts and hesitations, concentrate on essentials, and, in this way, map out a simpler and clearer picture of the newly discovered territory. This simplification and clarification redound to the benefit of those of the third generation, who are thus equipped from the outset with an over-all chart. With this chart they are enabled to formulate new problems and mark out the boundary lines more sharply than ever before. I I27 \Ve can congratulate the author on the success of her attempt to provide a general orientation on the problems of medical psychotherapy in its most modern aspects. Her many years of practical

I I25

[.M. Esther Harding, Psychic Energy: Its Source and Goal (New York, Bollingen Series X, and London, I 94 7). The author ( 1889-I 971 ) , originally English. practiced in New York. The foreword was trans. for the 1947 edn. by Hildegard Nagel; republished in 2nd edn., 1963, with subtitle of the book changed to "Its Source and Its Transformation." The Nagel trans. is published here \Vith minor revisions. For forewords to other works of Harding's, see infra, pars. 1228ff. and 1795ff.]

IX. THE STRCCTCRE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE

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experience ha\Âˇe stood her in good stead; \vithout them her undertaking would not have been possible at all. For it is not a question, as many believe, of a "philosophy," but rather of facts and their formulation, which in turn must be tested in practice. Concepts like "shadow" and "anima'' are in no sense intellectual inventions. They are designations for psychic facts of a complex nature which are empirically verifiable. These facts can be obserwd by anyone who takes the trouble to do so and who is able to lay aside his preconceived ideas. Experience shows how difficult this is. For instance, how many people still labour under the delusion that the term archetype denotes an inherited idea! Such completely unwarranted assumptions naturally make any understanding impossible. It is to be hoped that Dr. Harding's book, with its simple and lucid exposition, will be especially suited to dispel such absurd misunderstandings. In this respect it can be of the greatest service not only to the doctor but also to the patient. I should like to emphasize this point particularly. It is obviously necessary for a doctor to have an adequate understanding of the material laid before him; but if he is the only one who understands, it is of no great help to the patient, since he is actually suffering from lack of consciousness and should therefore become more conscious. To this end, he needs knowledge; and the more of it he acquires, the greater is his chance of overcoming his difficulties. For those of my patients who have reached the point where greater spiritual independence is necessary, Dr. Harding's hook is one that I should unhesitatingly recommend.

Kusnacht-Zurich, july 8, 1947

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ADDRESS ON THE OCCASION OF THE FOUNDING OF THE C. G. JUNG Il\STITUTE, ZURICH, 24 APRIL 1948 1 1129

1130

It is a particular pleasure and satisfaction for me to have the privilege of speaking to you on this memorable day of the founding of an Institute for Complex Psychology. I am honoured that you have come here for the purpose of establishing this institute of research which is designed to carry on the work begun by me. I hope, therefore, I may be allowed to say a few words about what has been achieved up to the present, as well as about our aims for the future. As you know, it is nearly fifty years since I began my work as a psychiatrist. At that time, the broad fields of psychopathology and psychotherapy were so much wasteland. Freud and Janet had just begun to lay the foundations of methodology and clinical observation, and Flournoy in Geneva had made his contribution to the art of psychological biography, which is still far from being appreciated at its true value. With the help of Wundt's association experiments, I was trying to evaluate the peculiarities of neurotic states of mind as exactly as possible. In the face of the layman's prejudice that the psyche was something immeasurably subjective and boundlessly capricious, my purpose was to investigate what appeared to be the most subjective and most complicated psychic process of all, namely, the associative reaction, and to describe its nature in numerically expressible quantities. This work led directly to the discovery of the feeling-toned complex, and indirectly to a new question, namely, the problem of attitude, which exerts a decisive influence upon the associative reaction. The answer to this question was found by clinical observation of patients and by analysis of their behaviour. From these researches there emerged a psychological typology, which distinguished two attitude-types, the extravert and the introvert, and four function-types corresponding to the four orienting functions of consciousness. [Trans. from the unpublished German MS. A translation by Hildegard Nagel appeared in the Bulletin of the Analytical Psychology Club of New York, 1o: 7 (Oct. 1948), Supplement. The present trans. is new.]

47 1

IX. THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE

The existence of complexes and of typical attitudes could not be adequately explained without the hypothesis of the unconscious. From the beginning, therefore, the above-mentioned experiments and researches went hand in hand with an investigation of unconscious processes. This led, about I g I 2, to the actual discovery of the collective unconscious. The term itself is of a later date. If the theory of complexes and type psychology had already overstepped the bounds of psychiatry proper, with the hypothesis of the collective unconscious the scope of our researches was extended without limit. Not only the domain of normal psychology, but also those of racial psychology, folklore, and mythology in the widest sense became the subject-matter of complex psychology. This expansion found expression in the collaboration with the sinologist Richard Wilhelm and the indologist Heinrich Zimmer. Both are now dead, but our science has not forgotten the inestimable contribution they made. Wilhelm above all introduced me to medieval Chinese alchemy and thus prepared the ground for an understanding of the rudiments of modern psychology that are to be found in the medieval texts. Into the painful gap left by the death of these two fellow workers there stepped, a few years ago, Karl Kerenyi, one of the most brilliant philologists of our time. Thus a wish I personally had long cherished saw fulfillment, and our science was granted a new helper. 1 " I I 32 The insights gained originally in the domains of psychopathology and normal psychology proved to be keys to the most difficult Taoist texts and to abstruse Indian myths, and Kerenyi has now supplied such a wealth of connections with Greek mythology that the cross-fertilization of the two branches of science can no longer be doubted. In the same way that Wilhelm aroused an interest in alchemy and made possible a true interpretation of this little understood philosophy, Kerenyi's work has stimulated a large number of psychological researches, in particular the investigation and elucidation of one of the most important problems in psychotherapy, namely, the phenomenon of the transference.~ I I 33 Recently an unexpected and most promising connection has been forged between complex psychology and physics, or to be more accurate, microphysics. On the psychological side, it was first of all C. A. Meier who pointed out the common conception of compleI I

" [The work of Richard Wilhelm (I 873-I 930), Heinrich Zimmer (I 890-I 943), and Karl Kerenyi (I 897-I 973) has been widely translated.] ~ [Cf. Mysterium Coniunctionis, pp. xiii and xv.]

THE FOU!':DING OF THE JUNG I~STITCTE, ZURICH

mentarity. Pascual Jordan approached psychology from the physicist's side by drawing attention to the phenomenon of spatial relativity which applies equally to the phenomena of the unconscious. W. Pauli has taken up the new "psychophysical" problem on a much broader basis, examining it from the standpoint of the formation of scientific theories and their archetypal foundations. 3 Recently, in two impressive lectures, he showed on the one hand how the archetypal triad or trinity formed the point of departure for Kepler's astronomy, and on the other how Fludd's polemics with Kepler were based on the alchemical thesis of the quaternity. The object at issue, the pro portio sesquitertia or ratio of 3 : I, is likewise a fundamental problem in the psychology of the unconscious. Thirty years ago, the problem first presented itself in psychology as a typological phenomenon, i.e., as the relation of three more or less differentiated functions to one inferior function which was contaminated with the unconscious. Since then it has been considerably widened and deepened by the study of Gnostic and alchemical texts. It appears there partly in the form of the social or folkloristic marriage quaternio, derived originally from the primitive cross-cousin-marriage, and partly in the form of a differentiation in the sequence of elements, in which one or the other element, usually fire or earth, is distinguished from the other three. The same problem appears in the controversy between the trinitarian and the quaternarian standpoint in alchemy. In complex psychology the quaternity symbol has been shown to be an expression of psychic totality, and in the same way it could be established that the proportio sesquitertia commonly occurs in the symbolism produced by the unconscious. If, as conjectured, the quaternity or above-named proportion is not only fundamental to all concepts of totality but is also inherent in the nature of observed microphysical processes, we are driven to the conclusion that the space-time continuum, including mass, is psychically relative-in other words, that it forms a unity with the unconscious psyche. Accordingly, there must be phenomena which can be explained only in terms of a psychic relativity of space, time, and mass. Besides numerous indi\'idual observations the experiments conducted at Duke University by Rhine and elsewhere by other investigators ha\'e furnished sufficient proof of this. You will forgi\'e me if I ha\'e dwelt on the latest connections of ["The Influence of Archetypal Ideas on the Scientific Theories of Kepler," in Jung and Pauli, The Interpretation of l\'ature and the Psyche (trans.,

1955) .]

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I I

our psychology with physics at some length. It did not seem to me superfluous in view of the incalculable importance of this question. To round out the position of complex psychology as it is at present, I would like to mention some major works by pupils. These include the "Einfiihrung in die Grundlagen der komplexen Psychologie," by Toni Wolff/ a work distinguished for its philosophical clarity; the books of Esther Harding on feminine psychology ;5 the analysis of the Hypnerotomachia of Francesco Colonna, by Linda Fierz-David, 6 a showpiece of medieval psychology; the valuable introduction to our psychology by Jolande Jacobi: i the books on child psychology by Frances Wickes, 8 notable for their interesting material; the great book by H. G. Baynes, Mythology of the Soul; 0 a synoptic study by Gerhard Adler; 10 a large-scale work in several volumes by Hedwig von Roques and Marie-Louise von Franz ;11 and finally, a work of significant content and scope on the evolution of consciousness by Erich Neumann. 12 Of particular interest are the repercussions of complex psychology in the psychology of religion. The authors here are not my personal pupils. I would draw attention to the excellent book by Hans Schaer13 on the Protestant side, and to the writings of W. P. Witcutt 14 and Father Victor White 5 concerning the relations [In Die kulturelle Bedeutung der Komplexen Psychologie (I 935); reprinted posthumously in Studien zu C. G. ]ungs Psychologie (I 959), with introduction by Jung (in C.W., vol. 10).] 5 [Woman's Mysteries and The Way of All Women. Cf. infra, pars. 1228ff. and 1795ff.] 6 [The Dream of Poliphilo. Cf. infra, pars. 1 749ff.] i [The Psychology of C. G. ]ung. Cf. supra, pars. 1 I 2 df. Also Complex/ Archetype/Symbol, infra, pars. 1256ff.] s [The Inner World of Childhood. Cf. C.W., vol. 17.] 9 [London, I 940. Cf. infra, pars. I 42 Iff.] 10 [Studies in Analytical Psychology. Cf. infra, pars. 1238ff.] 11 [Symbolik des Miirchens and Gegensatz und Erneuerung im Miirchen (Bern, I 959), by Hedwig von Beit, maiden name of Frau von Rogues; the publications are based on the work of Dr. von Franz.] 12 [The Origins and History of Consciousness. Cf. infra, pars. 1234ff.] " [( 191 o-1 968), professor of philosophy and the psychology of religion, Bern U. The reference is to his Religion and the Cure of Souls in ]ung's Psychology (trans. by R.F.C. Hull, 1950). Cf. his Erlosungsvorstellungen und ihre psychologischen Aspekte ( 1950) .] 14 [English priest, at that time a Roman Catholic convert; after 1949, Anglican. Cf. his Catholic Thought and Modern Psychology ( 1943), and his account of his reconversion, Return to Reality ( 1954) .] 15 [God and the Unconscious. Cf. Jung's foreword, C.W., vol. I 1.] 4

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of our psychology to Thomist philosophy, and finally to the excellent account of the basic concepts by Gebhard Frei, 16 whose unusual erudition facilitates an understanding from all sides. 11 36 To the picture of the past and present I must now try to sketch out one for the future. This can naturally take the form only of programmatic hints. 11 37 The manifold possibilities for the further development of complex psychology correspond to the various developmental stages it has already passed through. So far as the experimental aspect is concerned, there are still numerous questions which need to be worked out by experimental and statistical methods. I have had to leave many beginnings unfinished because of more pressing tasks that claimed my time and energies. The potentialities of the association experiment are by no means exhausted yet. For instance, the question of the periodic renewal of the emotional tone of complexstimulators is still unanswered; the problem of familial patterns of association has remained stuck in its beginnings, promising though these were; and so has the investigation of the physiological concomitants of the complex. 11 38 In the medical and clinical field there is a dearth of fully elaborated case histories. This is understandable, because the enormous complexity of the material puts almost insurmountable difficulties in the way of exposition and makes the highest demands not only on the knowledge and therapeutic skill of the investigator but also on his descriptive capacity. In the field of psychiatry, analyses of paranoid patients coupled with research into comparative symbolism would be of the utmost value. Special consideration might be given to the collection and evaluation of dreams in early childhood and pre-catastrophal dreams, i.e., dreams occurring before accidents, illness, and death, as well as dreams during severe illnesses and under narcosis. The investigation of pre- and post-mortal psychic phenomena also comes into this category. These are particularly important because of the relativation of space and time that accompanies them. A difficult but interesting task would be research into the processes of compensation in psychotics and in criminals, and in general into the goal of compensation and the nature of its directedness. 1139 In normal psychology, the most important subjects for research 1905-68), professor of philosophy and comparative religion, Theological Seminary of Schoneck (Cant. Nidwalden). Cf. his Probleme der Parapsychologie: Gesammelte A ufsiitze, ed. A. Resch ( 1969) .)

16 [ (

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would be the psychic structure of the family in relation to heredity, the compensatory character of marriage and of emotional relationships in general. A. particularly pressing problem is the behaviour of the indi\路idual in the mass and the unconscious compensation to which this gives rise. I qo A rich han路est is to be reaped in the field of the humanities. Here a tremendous prospect opens out, and at present we are standing only on its extreme periphery. ~lost of it is still virgin territory. The same applies to biographical studies, which are especially important for the history of literature. But above alL analytical work remains to be done on questions concerned with the psychology of religion. The study of religious myths would throw light not only on racial psychology but also on certain borderline problems such as the one I mentioned earlier. In this respect, particular attention would have to be paid to the quaternity symbol and the proportio sesquitertia, as exemplified in the alchemical axiom of Maria, both from the side of the psychologist and from that of the physicist. The physicist may have to consider revising his concept of spacetime, and for the psychologist there is need of a more thorough im路estigation and description of triadic and tetradic symbols and their historical development, to which Frobenius has contributed valuable material. Comprehensive studies are also needed of symbols of the goal or of unity. I I4I This list, put together more or less at random, makes no claim to completeness. What I have said may suffice to give you a rough idea of what has already been achie\路ed in complex psychology and of the direction which future researches conducted by the Institute might be expected to take. ~Iuch will remain a mere desideratum. Not all of it will be fulfilled; the individual differences of our workers on the one hand, and the irrationality and unpredictability of all scientific development on the other, will see to that. Happily, it is the prerogative of any institution with limited means, and not run by the State, to produce work of high quality in order to surnve.

DEPTH PSYCHOLOGP I I4 2

I I43

I I44

I I45

"Depth psychology" is a term deriving from medical psychology, coined by Eugen Bleuler to denote that branch of psychological science which is concerned with the phenomenon of the unconSCIOUS. As a philosophical and metaphysical concept, the unconscious occurs fairly early, for instance as "petites perceptions" in Leibniz," "eternal unconscious" in Schelling, "unconscious \\'ill" in Schopenhauer, and as the "divine Absolute" in von Hartmann. In the academic psychology of the nineteenth century, the unconscious occurs as a basic theoretical concept in Theodor Lipps, who defines it as the "psychic reality which must necessarily be thought to underlie the existence of a conscious content"; and in F. H.W. Myers and William James, who stress the importance of an unconscious psyche. With Theodor Fechner, the unconscious becomes an empirical concept. Nevertheless, the empirical approach to the unconscious may properly be said to date from quite recent times, since up to the tum of the century the psyche was usually identified with consciousness, and this made the idea of the unconscious appear untenable ( Wundt). The real pioneers of experimental research into the unconscious were Pierre Janet and Sigmund Freud, two medical psychologists whose investigations of pathological psychic life laid the foundations of the modern science of the unconscious. Great credit is due to Janet for his investigation of hysterical states, which he developed in his theory of "partial psychic dissociation," drawing a distinction between the "partie superieure" and "partie inferieure" of a function. Equally fruitful was his experimental proof of "idees fixes" and "obsessions," and of their autonomous effects upon consciOusness. 1

[Article written (in I 948) for the Lexicon der Paedogogik (Bern, I 95 I), vol. II, pp. 768-73: "Tiefenpsychologie.") 2 [That is, subliminal perceptions which are not apperceived. Cf. "Synchronicity" (C.W., vol. 8), pars. 93I, 937Âˇ For the references in this and the following par., cf. L. L. Whyte, The Unconscious before Freud, index, ss.vv.)

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The prominence given to the unconscious as a fundamental concept of empirical psychology, however, goes back to Freud, the true founder of the depth psychology which bears the name of psychoanalysis. This is a special method of treating psychic illnesses, and consists essentially in uncovering what is "hidden, forgotten, and repressed" in psychic life. Freud was a nerve specialist. His theory was evolved in the consulting room and always preserved its stamp. His fundamental premise was the pathological, neurotically degenerate psyche. 1 147 The development of Freud's thought can be traced as follows. He began by investigating neurotic symptoms, more particularly hysterical symptom-formation, whose psychic origin Breuer, employing a method borrowed from hypnotism, had previously discovered in the existence of a causal connection between the symptoms and certain experiences of which the patient was unconscious. In these experiences Freud recognized affects which had somehow got "blocked," and from which the patient had to be freed. He found there was a meaningful connection between the symptom and the affective experience, so much so that conscious experiences which later became unconscious were essential components of neurotic symptoms. The affects remained unconscious because of their painful nature. In consequence, Freud made no further use of hypnosis in "abreacting" the blocked affects, but developed instead his technique of "free association" for bringing the repressed processes back to consciousness. He thus laid the foundations of a causal-reductive method, of which special use was to be made in his interpretation of dreams. 1 1 48 In order to explain the origin of hysteria, Freud established the theory of the sexual trauma. He found that traumatic experiences were especially painful because most of them were caused by instinctual impulses coming from the sexual sphere. He assumed to begin with that hysteria in general was due to a sexual trauma in childhood. Later he stressed the aetiological significance of infantile-sexual fantasies that proved to be incompatible with the moral values of consciousness and were therefore repressed. The theory of repression forms the core of Freud's teaching. According to this theory, the unconscious is essentially a phenomenon of repression, and its contents are elements of the personal psyche that although once conscious are now lost to consciousness. The unconscious would thus owe its existence to a moral conflict. 1 1 49 The existence of these unconscious factors can be demonstrated,

1 146

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as Freud showed, with the help of parapraxes (slips of the tongue, forgetting, misreading) and above all with the help of dreams, which are an important source of information regarding unconscious contents. It is Freud's particular merit to have made dreams once more a problem for psychologists and to have attempted a new method of interpretation. He explained them by means of the repression theory, and maintained that they consisted of morally incompatible elements which, though capable of becoming conscious, were suppressed by an unconscious moral factor, the "censor," and could therefore appear only in the form of disguised wish-fulfillments. 1 1 5Â° The instinctual conflict underlying this phenomenon Freud described initially as the conflict between the pleasure principle and the reality principle, the latter playing the part of an inhibiting factor. Later he described it as the conflict between the sexual instinct and the ego-instinct (or between the life-instinct and the death-instinct). The obtaining of pleasure was correlated with the pleasure principle, and the culture-creating impulse with the reality principle. Culture required the sacrifice of instinctual gratification by the whole of mankind and the individual alike. Resistance to this sacrifice led to secret wish-fulfillments distorted by the "censor." The danger inherent in this theory was that it made culture appear a substitute for unsatisfied natural instincts, so that complex psychic phenomena like art, philosophy, and religion became "suspect," as though they were "nothing but" the outcome of sexual repression. It would seem that Freud's negative and reductive attitude towards cultural values was historically conditioned. His attitude towards myth and religion was that of the scientific materialism of the nineteenth century. As his psychology was mainly concerned with the neuroses, the pathological aspect of the transformation of instinct claims a disproportionately large place in his theory of the unconscious and of the neuroses themselves. The unconscious appears to be essentially an appendix of consciousness; its contents are repressed wishes, affects, and memories that owe their pathogenic significance to infantile sexuality. The most important of the repressed contents is the so-called Oedipus complex, which represents the fixation of infantile sexual wishes on the mother and the resistance to the father arising from feelings of envy and fear. This complex forms the core of a neurosis. 1151 The question of the dynamics of unconscious fantasy-formations led Freud to a concept of great importance for the further develop-

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ment of depth psychology, namely, the concept of libido. At first he regarded this as the sexual instinct, but later broadened it by assuming the existence of "libidinal aflluxes" due to the displacement and dissociability of the libido. Through the investigation of libido-fixations Freud discovered the "transference," a fundamental phenomenon in the treatment of neurosis. Instead of recollecting the repressed elements, the patient "transfers" them to the analyst in the form of some current experience; that is, he projects them and thereby imÂˇolves the analyst in his "family romance." In this v.Âˇay his illness is converted into the "transference neurosis" and is then acted out between them. I I 52 Freud later expanded the concept of the unconscious by calling it the "id" in contradistinction to the conscious ego. (The term derives from Groddeck.) The id represents the natural unconscious dynamism of man, while the ego forms that part of the id which is modified under the influence of the environment or is replaced by the reality principle. In working out the relations between the ego and the id, Freud discovered that the ego contains not only conscious but also unconscious contents, and he was therefore compelled to frame a concept to characterize the unconscious portion of the ego, which he called the "super-ego" or "ego-ideal." He regarded this as the representative of the parental authority, as the successor of the Oedipus complex, that impels the ego to restrain the id. It manifests itself as conscience, which, invested with the authority of collective morality, continues to display the character of the father. The super-ego accounts for the acthÂˇity of the censor in dreams. I I 53 Although Alfred Adler is usually included among the founders of depth psychology, his school of individual psychology represents only a partial continuation of the line of research initiated by his teacher Freud. Confronted with the same empirical material, Adler considered it from an entirely different point of view. For him, the primary aetiological factor was not sexuality but the powerdrive. The neurotic individual appeared to him to be in conflict with society, with the result that his spontaneous development was blocked. On this view the individual never exists for himself alone; he maintains his psychic existence only within the community. In contrast to the emphasis Freud laid on instinctual strivings, Adler stressed the importance of environmental factors as possible causes of neurosis. Neurotic symptoms and disturbances of personality were the result of a morbidly intensified valuation of the ego, which,

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11 54

1155

instead of adapting to reality, develops a system of "guiding fictions." This hypothesis gives expression to a finalistic viewpoint diametrically opposed to the causal-reductive method of Freud, in that it emphasizes the direction towards a goal. Each individual chooses a guiding line as a basic pattern for the organization of all psychic contents. Among the possible guiding fictions, Adler attached special importance to the winning of superiority and power over others, the urge "to be on top." The original source of this misguided ambition lies in a deep-rooted feeling of inferiority, necessitating an over-compensation in the form of security. A primary organinferiority, or inferiority of the constitution as a whole, often proves to be an aetiological factor. Environmental influences in early childhood play their part in building up this psychic mechanism, since it is then that the foundations are laid for the development of the guiding fiction. The fiction of future superiority is maintained by tendentiously distorting all valuations and giving undue importance to being "on top" as opposed to "underneath," "masculine" as opposed to "feminine," a tendency which finds its clearest expression in the so-called "masculine protest." In Adler's individual psychology, Freud's basic concepts undergo a process of recasting. The Oedipus complex, for example, loses its importance in view of the increasing drive for security; illness becomes a neurotic "arrangement" for the purpose of consolidating the life-plan. Repression loses its aetiological significance when understood as an instrument for the better realization of the guiding fiction. Even the unconscious appears as an "artifice of the psyche," so that it may very well be asked whether Adler can be included among the founders of depth psychology. Dreams, too, he regarded as distortions aiming at the fictive security of the ego and the strengthening of the power drive. Nevertheless, the services rendered by Adler and his school to the phenomenology of personality disturbances in children should not be overlooked. Above all, it must be emphasized that a whole class of neuroses can in fact be explained primarily in terms of the power drive. Whereas Freud started out as a neurologist, and Adler later became his pupil, C. G. Jung was a pupil of Eugen Bleuler and began his career as a psychiatrist. Before he came into contact with Freud's ideas, he had, in treating a case of somnambulism in a fifteen-year-old girl ( 1 8gg), observed that her unconscious contained the beginnings of a future personality development, which took the form of a split (or "double") personality. Through experi481

IX. THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE

mental researches on association ( I 903) he found that in normal individuals as well as in neurotics the reactions to word-tests were disturbed by split-off ("repressed") emotional complexes ("feelingtoned complexes of ideas"), which manifested themselves by means of definite symptoms ("complex-indicators"). These experiments confirmed the existence of the repressions described by Freud and their characteristic consequences. In I 906 Jung gave polemical support to Freud's discovery. The theory of complexes maintains that neurosis is caused by the splitting-off of a vitally important complex. Similar splinter-complexes can be observed in schizophrenia. In this disease the personality is, as it were, broken up into its complexes, with the result that the normal ego-complex almost disappears. The splinter-complexes are relatively autonomous, are not subject to the conscious will, and cannot be corrected so long as they remain unconscious. They lend themselves to personification (in dreams, for instance), and, with increa~ing dissociation and autonomy, assume the character of partial personalities (hence the old view of neuroses and psychoses as states of possession). I I s6 In I 907 J ung became personally acquainted with Freud, and derived from him a wealth of insights, particularly in regard to dream psychology and the treatment of neurosis. But in certain respects he arrived at views which differed from those of Freud. Experience did not seem to him to justify Freud's sexual theory of neurosis, and still less that of schizophrenia. The conception of the unconscious needed to be broadened, inasmuch as the unconscious was not just a product of repression but was the creative matrix of consciousness. Equally, he was of the opinion that the unconscious could not be explained in personalistic terms, as a merely personal phenomenon, but that it was also in part collective. Accordingly, he rejected the view that it possessed a merely instinctual nature, as well as rejecting the wish-fulfillment theory of dreams. Instead, he emphasized the compensatory function of the unconscious processes and their teleological character. For the wishfulfillment theory he substituted the concept of development of personality and development of consciousness, holding that the unconscious does not consist only of morally incompatible wishes but is largely composed of hitherto undeveloped, unconscious portions of the personality which strive for integration in the wholeness of the individual. In the neurotic, this process of realization is manifested in the conflict between the relatively mature side of the personality and the side which Freud rightly described as infantile. The conflict 482

DEPTH PSYCHOLOGY

has at first a purely personal character and can be explained personalistically, as the patients themselves do, and moreover in a manner which agrees both in principle and in detail with the Freudian explanation. Their standpoint is a purely personal and egoistic one, and takes no account of the collective factors, this being the very reason why they are ill. In schizophrenics, on the other hand, the collective contents of the unconscious predominate strongly in the form of mythological motifs. Freud could not subscribe to these modifications of his views, so Jung and he parted company. 1157 Such differences of viewpoint, further increased by the contradiction between Freud's and Adler's explanation of neurosis, prompted Jung to investigate more closely the important question of the conscious attitude, on which the compensatory function of the unconscious depends. Already in his association experiments he had found indications of an attitude-type, and this was now confirmed by clinical observations. As a general and habitual disposition in every individual, there proved to be a more or less pronounced tendency towards either extraversion or introversion, the focus of interest falling in the first case on the object, and in the second on the subject. These attitudes of consciousness determine the corresponding modes of compensation by the unconscious: the emergence in the first case of unconscious demands upon the subject, and in the second of unconscious ties to the object. These relationships, in part complementary, in part compensatory, are complicated by the simultaneous participation of the variously differentiated orienting functions of consciousness, namely, thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition, which are needed for a whole judgment. The most differentiated ("superior") function is complemented or compensated by the least differentiated ("inferior") function, but at first only in the form of a conflict. 11 58 Further investigation of the collective material of the unconscious, presented by schizophrenics and by the dreams of neurotics and normal people, elicited typical figures or motifs which have their counterparts in myth and may therefore be called archetypes. These are not to be thought of as inherited ideas; rather, they are the equivalent of the "pattern of behaviour" in biology. The archetype represents a mode of psychic behaviour. As such, it is an "irrepresentable" factor which unconsciously arranges the psychic elements so that they fall into typical configurations, much as a crystalline grid arranges the molecules in a saturated solution. The specific associations and memory images forming these configurations

483

IX. THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE

Yary endlessly from indi,Âˇidual to individual; only the basic pattern remains the same. One of the clearest of these archetypal figures is the anima, the personification of the unconscious in feminine form. This archetype is peculiar to masculine psychology, since the unconscious of a man is by nature feminine, probably owing to the fact that sex is determined merely by a preponderance of masculine genes, the feminine genes retreating into the background. The corresponding role in a woman is played by the animus. A figure common to both sexes is the shadow, a personification of the inferior side of the personality. These three figures appear Yery frequently in the dreams and fantasies of normal people, neurotics and schizophrenics. Less frequent is the archetype of the wise old man and of the earth mother. Besides these there are a number of functional and situational motifs, such as ascent and descent, the crossing (ford or strait), tension and suspension between opposites, the world of darkness, the breakthrough (or invasion), the creation of fire, helpful or dangerous animals, etc. Most important of all is the supposedly central archetype or self, which seems to be the point of reference for the unconscious psyche, just as the ego is the point of reference for consciousness. The symbolism associated with this archetype expresses itself on the one hand in circular, spherical, and quaternary forms, in the "squaring of the circle," and in mandala symbolism; on the other hand in the imagery of the supraordinate personality (God-image, Anthropos symbolism). I I 59 These empirical findings show that the unconscious consists of two layers: a superficial layer, representing the personal unconscious, and a deeper layer, representing the collective unconscious. The former is made up of personal contents, i.e., things forgotten and repressed, subliminal or "extrasensory" perceptions and anticipations of future developments, as well as other psychic processes that never reach the threshold of consciousness. A neurosis originates in a conflict between consciousness and the personal unconscious, whereas a psychosis has deeper roots and consists in a conflict inYolving the collective unconscious. The great rna jority of dreams contain mainly personal material, and their protagonists are the ego and the shadow. Normally, the dream material serves only to compensate the conscious attitude. There are, however, comparatively rare dreams (the "big" dreams of primitives) which contain clearly recognizable mythological motifs. Dreams of this sort are of especial importance for the development of personality. Their psychotherapeutic value was recognized even in ancient times.

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Since the personal unconscious contains the still actiYe residues of the past as well as the seeds of the future, it exerts a direct and very considerable influence on the conscious behaviour of the individual. All cases of unusual behaviour in children should be investigated for their psychic antecedents through rigorous interrogation of both child and parents. The behaviour of the parents, whether they have open or hidden conflicts, etc., has an incalculable effect on the unconscious of the child. The causes of infantile neurosis are to be sought less in the children than in the parents or teachers. The teacher should be more conscious of his shadow than the average person, otherwise the work of one hand can easily be undone by the other. It is for this reason that medical psychotherapists are required to undergo a training analysis, in order to gain insight into their own unconscious psyche. I 6oa Thanks to the parallelism between mythological motifs and the archetypes of the unconscious, depth psychology has been applied in widely differing fields of research, especially by students of mythology, folklore, comparative religion, and the psychology of primitives (Richard Wilhelm, Heinrich Zimmer, Karl Kerenyi, Hugo Rahner, Erich Neumann), as was also the case with the Freudian school earlier (Karl :\braham, Otto Rank, Ernest Jones). As the archetypes have a "numinous" quality and underlie all religious and dogmatic ideas, depth psychology is also of importance for theology. I 6I The activity of the collective unconscious manifests itself not only in compensatory effects in the lives of individuals, but also in the mutation of dominant ideas in the course of the centuries. This can be seen most clearly in religion, and, to a lesser extent, in the various philosophical, social, and political ideologies. It appears in most dangerous form in the sudden rise and spread of psychic epidemics, as for instance in the witch hunts in Germany at the end of the fourteenth century, or in the social and political utopias of the twentieth century. How far the collective unconcious may be considered the efficient cause of such movements, or merely their material cause, is a question for ethnologists and psychologists to decide; but certain experiences in the field of individual psychology indicate the possibility of a spontaneous activity of archetypes. These experiences usually concern individuals in the second half of life, when it not infrequently happens that drastic changes of outlook are thrust upon them by the unconscious as a result of some defect in their conscious attitude. While the activity

I I

485

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I I 62

of the personal unconscious is confined to compensatory changes in the personal sphere, the changes effected by the collective unconscious have a collective aspect: they alter our view of the world, and, like a contagion, infect our fellow men. (Hence the astonishing effects of certain psychopaths on society!) The regulating influence of the collective unconscious can be seen at work in the psychic development of the individual, or individuation process. Its main phases are expressed by the classic archetypes that are found in the ancient initiation mysteries and in Hermetic philosophy. These archetypal figures appear in projected form during the transference. Freud recognized only the personal aspect of this psychotherapeutically very important phenomenon. Despite appearances to the contrary, its real psychotherapeutic value does not lie in the sphere of personal problems (a misunderstanding for which the neurotic patient has to pay dearly), but in the projection of archetypal figures (anima, animus, etc.). The archetypal relationships thus produced during the transference serve to compensate the unlimited exogamy of our culture by a realization of the unconscious endogamous tendency. The goal of the psychotherapeutic process, the self-regulation of the psyche by means of the natural drive towards individuation, is expressed by the above-mentioned mandala and Anthropos symbolism.

FOREWORD TO THE FIRST VOLUl\IE OF STUDIES FROM THE C. G. JUNG INSTITUTE 1 r r63

r r64

The works which the Institute proposes to publish in this series derive from many different spheres of knowledge. This is understandable since they are predominantly psychological in character. Psychology, of its very nature, is the intermediary between the disciplines, for the psyche is the mother of all the sciences and arts. Anyone who wishes to paint her portrait must mingle many colours on his palette. In order to do justice to its subject, psychology has to rely on any number of auxiliary sciences, on whose findings its own growth and prosperity depend. The psychologist gratefully acknowledges his borrowings from other sciences, though he has neither the intention nor the ambition to usurp their domains or to "know better." He has no wish to intrude into other fields but restricts himself to using their findings for his own purposes. Thus, for example, he will not use historical material in order to write history but rather to demonstrate the nature of the psyche-a concern which is foreign to the historian. The forthcoming publications in this series will show the great diversity of psychological interests and needs. Recent developments in psychological research, in particular the psychology of the collective unconscious, have confronted us with problems which require the collaboration of other sciences. The facts and relationships unearthed by the analysis of the unconscious offer so many parallels to the phenomenology of myths, for example, that their psychological elucidation may also shed light on the mythological figures and their symbols. At all events, we must gratefully acknowledge the invaluable support psychology has received from students of myths and fairy-tales, as well as from comparative religion, even if they 1 [Vol. I of Studien a us dem C. G. Jung Institut, Zurich, 1949: C. A. Meier, Antike lnkubation und moderne Psychotherapie. The foreword was published in a trans. by Ralph Manheim, in the first vol. of Studies in Jungian Thought, James Hillman, General Editor: E1Âˇi/: Essays by Carl Kerenyi [and others] (Evanston, Ill., 1967), and (same series, same year), in a trans. of Meier's book: Ancient Incubation and Modern Psychotherapy. The present trans. is by R.F.C. Hull.]

IX. THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE

on their part have not yet learnt how to make use of its insights. The psychology of the unconscious is still a very young science which must first justify its existence before a critical public. This is the end which the publications of the Institute are designed to serve.

September 1948

FOREWORD TO FRIED:\. FORDH.-\~1: "E\TRODUCTIOX TO JU~G'S PSYCHOLOGY" 1 ~Irs. Frieda Fordham has undertaken the by no means easy task of producing a readable resume of all my yarious attempts at a better and more comprehensive understanding of the human psyche. As I cannot claim to have reached any definite theory explaining all or even the main part of the psyche's complexities, my work consists of a series of different approaches, or one might call it a circumambulation of unknovm factors. This makes it rather difficult to gh·e a clear-cut and simple account of my ideas. ~lore oYer, I always felt a particular responsibility not to oYerlook the fact that the psyche does not reYeal itself only in the doctor's consulting-room, but aboYe all in the wide world, as well as in the depths of history. What the doctor observes of its manifestations is an infinitesimal part of the psychic world, and moreover often distorted by pathological conditions. I was always conYinced that a fair picture of the psyche could be obtained only by a comparative method. But the great disadvantage of such a method is that one cannot avoid the accumulation of comparative material, with the result that the layman becomes bewildered and loses his tracks in the maze of parallels. I I66 The author's task would have been much simpler if she had been in possession of a neat theory for a point de depart, and of well-defined case material without digressions into the immense field of general psychology. The latter, however, seems to me to form the only safe basis and criterion for the evaluation of pathological phenomena, even as normal anatomy and physiology are an indispensable precondition for a study of their pathological aspects. Just as human anatomy has a long eYolution behind it, the psychology of modern man depends upon its historical roots and can only be judged by its ethnological variants. My works offer innumerable possibilities of side-tracking the reader's attention with considerations of this sort.

I I65

[Penguin Books.

953· The fore"·ord was written in English.]

IX. THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE

1167

Under those somewhat trying conditions the author has nevertheless succeeded in extricating herself from all the opportunities to make mis-statements. She has presented a fair and simple account of the main aspects of my psychological work. I am indebted to her for this admirable piece of work.

September 1952

490

FOREWORD TO i\liCHAEL FORDHAM: "NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY" 1 It is not easy to write a foreword to a book consisting of a collection of essays, especially when each essay requires one to take up an attitude or stimulates the reader into discursive comments. But this is just what Dr. Fordham's papers do: every single one of them is so carefully thought out that the reader can hardly avoid holding a conversation with it. I do not mean in a polemical sense, but rather in the sense of affirmation and in the desire to carry the objective discussion a stage further and collaborate on the solution of the problems involved. Opportunities for such enjoyable dialogues are unfortunately rather rare, so that one feels it as a distinct loss when one has to forgo them. A foreword ought not to make remarks to the author and, so to speak, buttonhole him for a private conversation. It ought, rather, to convey to the reader something of the impressions which the writer of the foreword received when reading the manuscript. If I may be forgiven a somewhat frivolous expression, the foreword should be content with the role of an intellectual aperitif. 11 69 Thus I can confess myself grateful for the stimulation the book has brought me, and salute the author's collaboration in the field of psychotherapy and analytical psychology. For in this territory questions arise of a practical and theoretical kind, which are so difficult to answer that they will continue to exercise our minds for a long time to come. Above all I would like to draw attention to Dr. Fordham's discussion of the problem of synchronicity, first mooted by me and now dealt with by him in a masterly manner. I must rate his achievement all the higher because it demands not only understanding, but courage too, not to let oneself be prevented from going more deeply into this problem by the prejudices of our intellectual compeers. Also I must acknowledge that the author has in no wise succumbed to the very understandable temptation to underestimate the problem, to pass off one's own lack of comprehension as the stupidity of others, to substitute other terms for the

1 1 68

[London, 1957. The foreword was written in English.]

49 1

IX. THE STRl"CTl"RE A:\"D DYXA::'.HCS OF THE PSYCHE

concepts I han proposed and to think that something new has been said. Here Dr. Fordham's feeling for essentials is confirmed in the finest way. I I ;o The paper on the transference merits attentive reading. Dr. Fordham guides his reader through the multifarious aspects of this '"problem with horns""-to use an expression of l'\ietzche's-with circumspection, insight, and caution, as befits this in eyery respect delicate theme. The problem of the transference occupies a central position in the dialectical process of analytical psychology and therefore merits quite special interest. It makes the highest demands not only on the doctor's knowledge and skill but also on his moral responsibility. Here the truth of the old alchemical dictum is proved yet again: ·'ars totum requirit hominem" (the art requires the total man). The author takes full account of the oYerriding importance of this phenomenon and accordingly devotes to it a particularly attenti,·e and careful exposition. The practising psychologist would be very wrong if he thought he could dismiss general considerations of this kind based on broader principles, and dispense with all deeper reflection. £\·en if psychotherapy admits of numerous prm·isional and superficial solutions in practice, the practising analyst will nenrtheless come up against cases from time to time that challenge him as a man and a personality in a way that may be decisive. The usual interim solutions and other banal expedients, such as appeals to collective precepts, which are im·ariably constructed with "must'' or "ought," then han a habit of breaking down, and the question of ultimate principles, or of the ultimate meaning of the indi,·idual. arises. This is the moment when dogmatic tenets and pragmatic rules of thumb must make way for a creati,·e solution issuing from the total man, if his therapeutic endea\·ours are not to get miserably silted up and stuck. In such cases he will need reflection and will be thankful to those who ha,·e been farsighted enough to struggle for an all-round understanding. I 1i 1 For it is not only a routine perfom1ance that is expected of the analyst. but also a readiness and ability to master unusual situations. This is particularly true of psychotherapy, where in the last analysis we are concerned with the whole of the human personality and not merely with life in its partial aspects. Routine cases can be disposed of in a ,·ariety of ways-with good ad,·ice, with suggestion. with a bit of training. with confession of sin, with any more or less plausible system of ,·iews and methods. It is the uncommon cases that set us the master test, by forcing us into fundamental

492

l\L FORDHAM: "l':EW DEVELOPJ\IE0:TS IN ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY''

1 172

reflections and demanding decisions of principle. From this vantage point we shall then discover that even in ordinary cases there is adumbrated a line that leads to the central theme, namely, the individuation process with its problem of opposites. This level of insight cannot be reached without the dialectical discussion between two individuals. Here the phenomenon of the transference forcibly brings about a dialogue that can only be continued if both patient and analyst acknowledge themselves as partners in a common process of approximation and differentiation. For, in so far as the patient frees himself from his infantile state of unconsciousness and its restrictive handicaps, or from its opposite, namely unbounded egocentricity, the analyst will see himself obliged to diminish the distance between them (hitherto necessary for reasons of professional authority), to a degree that does not prevent him from displaying that measure of humanity which the patient needs in order to assure himself of his right to exist as an individual. Just as it is the duty of parents and educators not to keep children on the infantile level but to lead them beyond it, so it is incumbent on the analyst not to treat patients as chronic invalids but to recognize them, in accordance with their spiritual development and insight, as more or less equal partners in the dialogue, with the same rights as himself. An authority that deems itself superior, or a personality that remains hors concours, only increases the patient's feelings of inferiority and of being excluded. An analyst who cannot risk his authority will be sure to lose it. In order to maintain his prestige he will be in danger of wrapping himself in the protective mantle of a doctrine. But life cannot be mastered with theories, and just as the cure of neurosis is not, ultimately, a mere question of therapeutic skill, but is a moral achievement, so too is the solution of problems thrown up by the transference. l'\o theory can give us any information about the ultimate requirements of individuation, nor are there any recipes that can be applied in a routine manner. The treatment of the transference reveals in a pitiless light what the healing agent really is: it is the degree to which the analyst himself can cope with his own psychic problems. The higher levels of therapy involve his own reality and are the acid test of his superiority. I hope Dr. Fordham's book, which is distinguished for its farsightedness, carefulness, and clarity of style, will meet with the interest it so much deserves. june 1957

493

AT\ ASTROLOGICAL EXPERIMENT 1 1 1 74

1 1 75

In the Swiss edition 2 I purposely set out the results of the astrological statistics in tabular form in this chapter, so that the reader could gain some insight into the behaviour of the figures-in other words, see for himself how fortuitous these results were. Subsequently, I wanted to suppress that account of the experiment in the English edition and for a very peculiar reason indeed. That is, it has been forcibly borne in on me that practically nobody has understood it the right way, despite-or perhaps because--of the fact that I took the trouble to describe the experiment in great detail and in all its vicissitudes. Since it involved the use of statistics and comparative frequencies, I had the (as it now seems) unlucky idea that it would be helpful to present the resultant figures in tabular form. But evidently the suggestive effect emanating from statistical tables is so strong that nobody can rid himself of the notion that such an array of figures is somehow connected with the tendentious desire to prove something. Nothing could have been further from my mind, because all I intended to do was to describe a certain sequence of events in all its aspects. This altogether too unassuming intention was misunderstood all round, with the consequence that the meaning of the whole exposition went by the board. I am not going to commit this mistake again, but shall make my point at once by anticipating the result: the experiment shows how synchronicity plays havoc with statistical material. Even the choice of my material seems to have thrown my readers into confusion, since it is concerned with astrological statistics. One can easily imagine how obnoxious such a choice must be to a prudish intellectualism. Astrology, we are told, is unscientific, absolute nonsense, and everything to do with it is branded as rank superstition. In 1

[A condensed version of ch. II of "Synchronicity: An Acausal Connecting Principle" (C. W., vol. 8). Published as "Ein astrologisches Experiment," Zeitschrift fur Parapsychologie und Grenzgebiete der Psychologie (Bern), I: 2/3 (!\lay 1958), 81-92. A long prefatory note by the editor, Hans Bender, quoted a letter to him from Jung, 12 Feb. 1958, in further clarification; it is in Letters, ed. G. Adler, vol. 2.] 2 [Jung and Pauli, l':aturerkliirung und Psyche, 1952.]

494

AN ASTROLOGICAL EXPERIMENT

such a dubious context, how could columns of figures mean anything except an attempt to furnish proofs in favour of astrology, proofs whose invalidity is a foregone conclusion? I have already said that there was never any question of that-but what can words do against numerical tables? 11 76 We hear so much of astrology nowadays that I determined to inquire a little more closely into the empirical foundations of this intuitive method. For this reason I picked on the following question: How do the conjunctions and oppositions of the sun, moon, Mars, Venus, ascendant, and descendant behave in the horoscopes of married people? The sum of all these aspects amount to fifty. 11 77 The material to be examined, namely, marriage horoscopes, was obtained from friendly donors in Zurich, London, Rome, and Vienna. The horoscopes, or rather the birth data, were piled up in chronological order just as the post brought them in. The misunderstanding already began here, as several astrological authorities informed me that my procedure was quite unsuited to evaluating the marriage relationship. I thank these amiable counsellors, but on my side there was never any intention of evaluating marriage astrologically but only of investigating the question raised above. As the material only trickled in very slowly I was unable to restrain my curiosity any longer, and I also wanted to test out the methods to be employed. I therefore took the 360 horoscopes (i.e., I 8o pairs) that had so far accumulated and gave the material to my coworker, Dr. Liliane Frey-Rohn, to be analysed. I called these I 8o pairs the "first batch." 1 I 78 Examination of this batch showed that the con junction of sun (masculine) and moon (feminine) was the most frequent of all the 50 aspects, occurring in 10% of all cases. The second batch, evaluated later, consisted of 440 additional horoscopes ( 220 pairs) and showed as the most frequent aspect a moon-moon con junction ( IO.g% ) . A third batch, consisting of I 66 horoscopes ( 8 3 pairs), showed as the most frequent aspect the ascendant-moon conjunction (g.6%). I I 79 What interested me most to begin with was, of course, the question of probability: were the maximum results obtained "significant" figures or not; that is, were they improbable or not? Calculations undertaken by a mathematician showed unmistakably that the average frequency of 1 o% in all three batches is far from representing a significant figure. Its probability is much too great; in other words, there is no ground for assuming that our maximum 495

IX. THE STRCCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE

frequencies are more than mere dispersions due to chance. Thus far the result of our statistics (which nevertheless cover nearly one thousand horoscopes) is disappointing for astrology. The material is, hoÂˇwewr, much too scantv for us to be able to draw from it any conclusions either for or against. 1 18o But if we look at the results qualitatively, we are immediately struck bv the fact that in all three batches it is a moon conjunction, and \vhat is mare-a point which the astrologer will doubtless appreciate-a conjunction of moon and sun, moon and moon, moon and ascendant, respectively. The sun indicates the month, the moon the day, and the ascendant the "moment" of birth. The positions of sun, moon, and ascendant form the three main pillars of the horoscope. It is altogether probable that a moon con junction should occur once, but that it should occur three times is extremely improbable (the improbability increases by the square each time), and that it should single out precisely the three main positions of the horoscope from among 4 7 other possibilities is something supranormal and looks like the most gorgeous falsification in favour of astrology. 11 8 1 These results, as simple as they are unexpected, were consistently misunderstood by the statisticians. They thought I wanted to prove something with my set of figures, whereas I only wished to give an ocular demonstration of their "chance" nature. It is naturally a little unexpected that a set of figures, meaningless in themselves, should "arrange" a result which everybody agrees to be improbable. It seems in fact to be an instance of that possibility which SpencerBrown has in mind when he says that "the results of the best-designed and most rigorously observed experiments in psychical research are chance results after all," and that "the concept of chance can cover a wider natural field than we previously suspected." 3 In other words what the previous statistical view obliged us to regard as "significant," that is, as a quasi-intentional grouping or arrangement, must be regarded equally as belonging to the realm of chance, which means nothing less than that the whole concept of probability must be revised. One can also interpret SpencerBrown's view as meaning that under certain circumstances the quality of "pseudo-intention" attaches to chance, or-if we wish to avoid a negative formulation-that chance can "create" meaningful arrangements that look as if a causal intention had been o [G. Spencer-Bro,,Âˇn, "Statistical Significance in Psychical Research," Nature, vol. 172, 25 July 1953, p. 154-l

AN ASTROLOGICAL EXPERIMENT

I IB2

I IB3

at work. But that is precisely what I mean by "synchronicity," and what I wanted to demonstrate in the report on my astrological experiment. Naturally I did not embark on the experiment for the purpose of achieving, or in anticipation of, this unexpected result, which no one could have foreseen; I was only curious to find out what sort of numbers would turn up in an investigation of this kind. This wish seemed suspicious not only to certain astrologers but also to my friendly mathematical adviser, who saw fit to warn me against thinking that my maximal figures would be a proof of the astrological thesis. Neither before nor afterwards was there any thought of such proof, besides which my experiment was arranged in a way most unsuited to that purpose, as my astrological critics had already pointed out. Since most people believe that numbers have been invented or thought out by man, and are therefore nothing but concepts of quantities, containing nothing that was not previously put into them by the human intellect, it was naturally very difficult for me to put my question in any other form. But it is equally possible that numbers were found or discovered. In that case they are not only concepts but something more-autonomous entities which somehow contain more than just quantities. Unlike concepts they are based not on any psychic assumption but on the quality of being themselves, on a "so-ness" that cannot be expressed by an intellectual concept. Under these circumstances they might easily be endowed with qualities that have still to be discovered. Also one could, as with all autonomous beings, raise the question of their behaviour; for instance one could ask what numbers do when they are intended to express something as archetypal as astrology. For astrology is the last remnant, now applied to the stars, of that fateful assemblage of gods whose numinosity can still be felt despite the critical procedures of our scientific age. In no previous age, however "superstitious," was astrology so widespread and so highly esteemed as it is today. I must confess that I incline to the view that numbers were as much found as invented, and that in consequence they possess a relative autonomy analogous to that of the archetypes. They would then have, in common with the latter, the quality of being pre-existent to consciousness, and hence, on occasion, of conditioning it rather than being conditioned by it. The archetypes too, as a priori forms of representation, are as much found as invented: they are discovered inasmuch as one did not know of their unconscious

497

IX. THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE

autonomous existence, and invented by the mind inasmuch as their presence was inferred from analogous representational structures. Accordingly it would seem that natural numbers must possess an archetypal character. If that is so, then not only would certain numbers have a relation to and an effect on certain archetypes, but the reverse would also be true. The first case is equivalent to number magic, but the second is equivalent to my question whether numbers, in conjunction with the numinous assemblage of gods which the horoscope represents, would show a tendency to behave in a special way. I I 84 All reasonable people, especially mathematicians, are acutely concerned with the question of what we can do by means of numbers. Only a few devote any attention to the question of what, in so far as they are autonomous, numbers do in themselves. The question sounds so absurd that one hardly dares to utter it in decent intellectual society. I could not predict what result my scandalous statistics would show. I had to wait and see. And as a matter of fact my figures behaved in so obliging a fashion that an astrologer can probably appreciate them far better than a mathematician. Owing to their excessively strict adherence to reason, mathematicians seem unable to see beyond the fact that in each separate case my result has too great a probability to prove anything about astrology. Of course it doesn't, because it was never intended to do any such thing, and I never for a moment believed that the maximum, falling each time on a moon conjunction, represented a so-called significant figure. Yet in spite of this critical attitude a number of mistakes were made in working out and computing the statistics, which all without exception contrived to bring about the most favourable possible result for astrology. As though to punish him for his well-meaning warning, the worst mistake of all fell to the lot of my mathematician, who at first calculated far too small a probability for the individual maxima, and was thus unwittingly deceived by the unconscious in the interests of astrological prestige. 1 I 8s Such lapses can easily be explained by a secret support for astrology in face of the violently prejudiced attitude of the conscious mind. But this explanation does not suffice in the case of the extremely significant over-all result, which with the help of quite fortuitous numbers produced the picture of the classical marriage tradition in astrology, namely the conjunction of the moon with the three principal positions of the horoscope, when there were 4 7 other possibilities to choose from. Tradition since the time of 498

AN ASTROLOGICAL EXPERIMENT

Ptolemy predicts that the moon con junction with the sun or moon of the partner is the marriage characteristic. Because of its position in the horoscope, the ascendant has just as much importance as the sun and moon. In view of this tradition one could not have wished for a better result. The figure giving the probability of this predicted concurrence, unlike the first-obtained maximum of 10%, is indeed highly significant and deserves emphasizing, although we are no more able to account for its occurrence and for its apparent meaningfulness than we can account for the results of Rhine's experiments, which prove the existence of a perception independent of the space-time barrier. I I 86 Naturally I do not think that this experiment or any other report on happenings of this kind proves anything; it merely points to something that even science can no longer overlook-namely, that its truths are in essence statistical and are therefore not absolute. Hence there is in nature a background of acausality, freedom, and meaningfulness which behaves complementarily to determinism, mechanism, and meaninglessness; and it is to be assumed that such phenomena are observable. Owing to their peculiar nature, however, they will hardly be prevailed upon to lay aside the chance character that makes them so questionable. If they did this they would no longer be what they are-acausal, undetermined, meaningful. 4 I I87 [Pure causality is only meaningful when used for the creation and functioning of an efficient instrument or machine by an intelligence standing outside this process and independent of it. A self-running process that operates entirely by its own causality, i.e., by absolute necessity, is meaningless. One of my critics accuses me of having too rigid a conception of causality. He has obviously not considered that if cause and effect were not necessarily 5 connected there would hardly be any meaning in speaking of causality at all. My critic makes the same mistake as the famous scientist 6 who refuses to believe that God played dice when he created the world. He fails to see that if God did not play dice he had no choice but to create a (from the human point of view) meaningless machine. Since this question involves a transcendental judgment 4

[The following two paragraphs, not represented in the Zeitschrift version, were added by Jung respectively to the German MS and to a letter containing queries sent to him by the translator, 23 April I954.] 5 With all due respect to their statistical nature' (C.G.J.) 6 [Albert Einstein.]

499

IX. THE STRCCTVRE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE

there can be no final answer to it, only a paradoxical one. A1 eaning arises not from causality but from freedom, i.e., from acausality. I I 88 [~!odern physics has deprived causality of its axiomatic character. Thus, when we explain natural events we do so by means of an instrument which is not quite reliable. Hence an element of uncertainty always attaches to our judgment, because-theoretically, at least-we might always be dealing with an exception to the rule which can only be registered negatively by the statistical method. No matter how small this chance is, it nevertheless exists. Since causality is our only means of explanation and since it is only relatively valid, we explain the world by applying causality in a paradoxical way, both positively and negati,Âˇely: A is the cause of B and possibly not. The negation can be omitted in the great majority of cases. But it is my contention that it cannot be omitted in the case of phenomena which are relatively independent of space and time. As the time-factor is indispensable to the concept of causality, one cannot speak of causality in a case where the time-factor is eliminated (as in precognition). Statistical truth leaves a gap open for acausal phenomena. And since our causalistic explanation of nature contains the possibility of its own negation, it belongs to the category of transcendental judgments, which are paradoxical or antinomian. That is so because nature is still beyond us and because science gives us only an average picture of the world, but not a true one. If human society consisted of average individuals only, it would be a sad sight indeed.] I I 8g From a rational point of view an experiment like the one I conducted is completely valueless, for the oftener it is repeated the more probable becomes its lack of results. But that this is also not so is proved by the very old tradition, which would hardly have come about had not these "lucky hits" often happened in the past. They behave like Rhine's results: they are exceedingly improbable, and yet they happen so persistently that they even compel us to criticize the foundations of our probability calculus, or at least its applicability to certain kinds of material. I I go \Vhen analysing unconscious processes I often had occasion to observe synchronistic or ESP phenomena, and I therefore turned my attention to the psychic conditions underlying them. I believe I have found that they nearly always occur in the region of archetypal constellations, that is, in situations which have either activated an archetype or were evoked by the autonomous activity of an archetype. It is these observations which led me to the idea of get-

soo

AN ASTROLOGICAL EXPERIMENT

I I9I

I I92

ting the combination of archetypes found in astrology to give a quantitatively measurable answer. In this I succeeded, as the result shows; indeed one could say that the organizing factor responded with enthusiasm to my prompting. The reader must pardon this anthropomorphism, which I know positively invites misinterpretation; it fits in excellently well with the psychological facts and aptly describes the emotional background from which synchronistic phenomena emerge. I am aware that I ought at this point to discuss the psychology of the archetype, but this has been done so often and in such detail elsewhere' that I do not wish to repeat myself now. I am also aware of the enormous impression of improbability made by events of this kind, and that their comparative rarity does not make them any more probable. The statistical method therefore excludes them, as they do not belong to the average run of events. 7

[Cf. "On the Nature of the Psyche" (C.W., vol. 8), pars. 397ff.]

50 I

LETTERS ON SYNCHROl'\ICITY

To Markus Fierz 1 2I

1 1 93

1 194

11 95

February

I950

Dear Professor Fierz, You were kind enough to read through my MS on synchronicity, for which I have never thanked you sufficiently. I have been too engrossed in working out this idea. Today I take the liberty of burdening you with yet another portion of this manuscript, my excuse being that I am in great perplexity as regards the mathematical evaluation of the results worked out. I enclose the Tables, together with the commentary. For your general orientation I would only remark that the peculiar nature of the material has necessitated a somewhat peculiar arrangement of the Tables. The basis of the experiment consists of I 8o married pairs, whose horoscopes were compared for the frequency of the so-called classical marriage aspects, namely, the conjunction and opposition of sun and moon, Mars and Venus, ascendant and descendant. These yield 50 aspects. The results obtained for married pairs were compared with I So X I So- I = 32,220 combinations of unmarried pairs. To the original material of I So married pairs another 145 were added later, which were also included in the statistics. They were examined in part separately, in part together with the 1 So, as you can see from the Tables. The most interesting seems to me to be Table VI/ which shows the dispersions in the frequency values of the aspects. I would now be most grateful if you would give me your criticism and view of the Tables as a whole, and, in particular, answer a question arising out of Table VI. We have here some aspects which considerably exceed the probable mean value of the combinations. I would now like to know what is the probability of these deviations from the probable mean. I know that far this purpose a calculation is 1

[Cf. "Synchronicity: An Acausal Connecting Principle" (C.W., vol. 8). See other letters to Fierz in jung: Letters, ed. G. Adler.] 2 [Table II in the English edn.J 502

LETTERS ON SYNCHRONICITY

1196

used which is based on the so-called "deviation standard." 3 But this method is beyond my mathematical capacity and here I am wholly dependent on your help. I would be very glad if you would concentrate mainly on this question. For outside reasons there is some urgency with these Tables, as the book is soon to go to press. Failing all else it would be enough for me if you could simply confirm that the Tables as a whole are in order, and if you could give me the probability at least for the two highest values in Table VI, column I. All the rest, I devoutly hope, you will be able to see from the Tables themselves. After brooding on them for a long time they have become clear to me, and I must confess I would not know how to make them any clearer. Should you be interested in the whole of the manuscript, or think it desirable to read it for the present purpose, it is naturally at your disposal. But I wouldn't like to send such an avalanche crashing down on you without warning. Thanking you in advance for the trouble you are taking, Yours sincerely, C. G. JuNG

2 l\hrch 1950 Dear Professor Fierz, 11 97 My best thanks for all the trouble you have taken. You have given me just what I hoped for from you-an objective opinion as to the significance of the statistical figures obtained from my material of now 400 marriages. Only I am amazed that my statistics have amply confirmed the traditional view that the sun-moon aspects are marriage characteristics, which is further underlined by the value you give for the moon-moon conjunction, namely o. I 25%For myself I regard the result as very unsatisfactory and have therefore stopped collecting further material, as the approximation to the probable mean with increasing material seems to me suspiCIOUs. 11 98 Although the figure of o. I 25% is still entirely within the bounds of possibility, I would nevertheless like to ask you, for the sake of clarity, whether one may regard this value as "significant" in so far as its represents a relatively low probability that coincides with the historical tradition? May one at least conjecture that it argues for rather than against the tradition (since Ptolemy)? I fully share your view of divinatory methods as catalysts of intuition. But the result of these statistics has made me somewhat sceptical, espe3

[English in the original.]

IX. THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE

cially in connection with the latest ESP experiments which have obtained probabilities of 10- 31 â&#x20AC;˘ These experiments and the whole experience of ESP are sufficient proof that meaningful coincidences do exist. There is thus some probability that the divinatory methods actually produce synchronistic phenomena. These seem to me most clearly discernible in astrology. The statistical findings undoubtedly show that the astrological correspondences are nothing more than chance. The statistical method is based on the assumption of a continuum of uniform objects. But synchronicity is a qualified individual event which is ruined by the statistical method; conversely, synchronicity abolishes the assumption of [a continuum of] uniform objects and so ruins the statistical method. It seems, therefore, that a complementarity relations hip exists between synchronicity and causality. Rhine's statistics have proved the existence of synchronicity in spite of unsuitable methods. This aroused false hopes in me as regards astrology. In Rhine's experiments the phenomenon of synchronicity is an extremely simple matter. The situation in astrology is incomparably more complicated and is therefore more sensitive to the statistical method, which emphasizes just what is least characteristic of synchronicity, that is, uniformity. Now my results, mischievously enough, exactly confirm the old tradition although they are as much due to chance as were the results in the old days. So again something has happened that shows all the signs of synchronicity, namely a "meaningful coincidence" or "Just So" story. Obviously the ancients must have experienced the same thing quite by chance, otherwise no such tradition could ever have arisen. I don't believe any ancient astrologer statistically examined 8oo horoscopes for marriage characteristics. He always had only small batches at his disposal, which did not ruin the synchronistic phenomenon and could therefore, as in my case, establish the prevalence of moon-moon and moon-sun con junctions, although these are bound to diminish with a higher range of numbers. All synchronistic phenomena, which are more highly qualified than ESP, are as such unprovable, that is to say a single authenticated instance is sufficient proof in principle, just as one does not need to produce ten thousand duckbilled platypi in order to prove they exist. It seems to me synchronicity represents a direct act of creation which manifests itself as chance. The statistical proof of natural conformity to law is therefore only a very limited way of describing nature, since it grasps only uniform events. But nature is essentially discontinuous, i.e., subject to chance. To describe it we need a principle

504

LETTERS

I I99

SYNCHRONICITY

of discontinuity. In psychology this is the drive to individuation, in biology it is differentiation, but in nature it is the "meaningful coincidence," that is to say synchronicity. Forgive me for putting forward these somewhat abstruse-looking reflections. They are new to me too and for that reason are still rather chaotic like everything in statu nascendi. . Thanks . again for your trouble! I should be glad to have your Impressions. Best regards, C. G. JuNG 20

2oo

I 20 I

October 1954

Dear Professor Fierz, Just now an English version of my book on synchronicity is being prepared. I would like to take this opportunity to make the necessary corrections for the probabilities of the maximal figures which you have so kindly calculated for me. My publishers now want to see the details of your calculation, as they don't understand what method you have employed. If it would be possible for you to let me have this report fairly soon I should be most grateful. Unfortunately I must still add a special request, namely the answer to the question: What is the probability of the total result that the 3 con junctions, moon-sun, moon-moon, moon asc., all come out together ?4 This result (though consisting of chance figures) corresponds to the traditional astrological prediction and at least imitates that picture, and if it consisted of "significant figures" would prove the rightness of astrological expectations. I hope I have succeeded in expressing myself clearly. I am indeed extremely sorry to bother you with this question and take up your valuable time. Perhaps you can assign the task to a student. l'\aturally in this matter I am helpless and am therefore quite prepared to recompense you or the student for the expenses involved. Please do not be offended at this practical suggestion. Best thanks in advance! Yours sincerely, C. G. JuNG 28 October 1954

I202

Dear Professor Fierz, Let me thank you most cordially for your kind and prompt fulfilment of my request. There is, of course no need for you to 4

[The report is summarized in "Synchronicity," pp. 483f.]

IX. THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE

1203

repeat your exposition; I will send it direct to Dr. Michael Fordham. A misunderstanding seems to have arisen over my question about the moon-sun, moon-moon, moon-asc. triad: r. The fact that my figures are due to chance was something I myself had noticed when putting my tables together. That is why I had the Tables printed in full; they express the chance nature of the figures quite clearly and so enable the non-mathematical reader to take it in at a glance. For the sake of accuracy I then asked you to give me the probability of my maxima. Your answer is more or less in line with what I expected. It was never my intention to prove that the astrological prediction is correct-! know the unreliability of astrology much too well for that. I only wanted to find out the exact degree of probability of my figures. You have already warned me twice about the impossibility of proving anything. That, if you will permit me to say so, is carrying coals to Newcastle. It doesn't matter to me at all whether astrology is right or not, but only (as said) what degree of probability those figures ("maxima") have, which simulate an apparent proof of the rightness of the astrological prediction. 2. The astrological prediction consists in the traditional assertion that my three moon conjunctions are specifically characteristic of marriage. (Sun, moon, asc. are the main pillars of the horoscope.) So this triad is not arbitrarily selected at all, for which reason I consider the analogy of the three white ants 5 entirely to the point. With all due respect, you seem to me to go very wide of the mark if you imagine that I regard my results as other than statistically determined. Naturally they fall within the limits of mathematical probability, but that does not stop my maxima from occurring at the very places the astrologer would expect. The only thing that interests me is the degree of probability to be attributed to this coincidence, merely for the sake of accuracy! I don't want to prove anything with my figures but only to show what has happened and what I have done. Quite by chance, as I have tried to show with all possible clarity, a configuration resulted which, if it consisted of significant figures, would argue in favour of astrology. The whole story is in other words a case like the scarab 6 and simply shows what chance can do-a "Just So" story in fact! That such coincidences are in principle more than merely statistically s [Cf. ibid., par. 902.] 6 [Ibid., par. 843.]

so6

LETTERS ON SYNCHRONICITY

determined is proved by Rhine's results, but not by an isolated instance like my statistics. 1 2o4 Naturally I speak in favour of chance in one respect, because I contest the absolute validity of statistical statements in so far as they dismiss all exceptions as unimportant. This gives us an abstract, average picture of reality which is to some extent a falsification of it, and this cannot remain a matter of indifference to the psychologist since he has to cope with the pathological consequences of this abstract substitute for reality. 1205 The exception is actually more real than the average since it is the vehicle of reality par excellence, as you yourself point out in your letter of October 24th. 1206 I am sorry to have caused you so much work, and that you now have to read this long letter as well. But I really do not know what could have led you to believe that I wanted to prove the truth of astrology. I only wanted to present a case of "meaningful coincidence" which would illustrate the main idea of my paper on synchronicity. This fact has been generally overlooked. In London they have called in a top statistician 7 to solve the riddle of my Tables. That is rather like a peasant not being able to open his barn door and then sending for an expert on safes, who naturally can't open it either. Regrettably, he too has succumbed to the error that I wanted to prove something in favour of astrology, although I disclaim this at some length in my book. 120 7 Unfortunately I am unable to understand how you can consider any other constellations (among my 50) just as "meaningful" as the three moon con junctions. None of the others are "classical predictions." Nor does just any ant appear, but only the "predicted" white ant. I am interested to know the probability of this meaningful occurrence precisely because it is not very probable that the white ant will be the first to come out of the box three times in succession. If the probability of a single time is I :50, wouldn't the probability of three times be I : 50 3 ? A quite appreciable figure, it seems to me. This result may surely be taken as complying with my intention to present a case of synchronicity, even though it proves nothing about astrology, which was never my intention anyway. Hoping that I have succeeded this time in clearing up the misunderstanding, I remain with best thanks and cordial greetings, Yours, C. G. JuNG 7

[M.

Moroney, Fellow of the Royal Statistical Society.]

IX. THE STRl"CTCRE

A~D

DY~AMICS

OF THE PSYCHE

To Jfichael Fordham'

1208

120 9

1 2 10

ISt july I 955 Dear Fordham, Synchronicity tells us something about the nature of what I call the psychoid factor, i.e., the unconscious archetype (not its conscious representation!). As the archetype has the tendency to gather suitable forms of expression round itself, its nature is best understood when one imitates and supports this tendency through amplification. The natural effect of an archetype and its amplification can be certainly understood as an analogy of the synchronistic effect, inasmuch as the latter shows the same tendency of arranging collateral and coincidental facts which represent suitable expressions of the underlying archetype. It is difficult or e\路en impossible, howe,路er, to prove that amplificatory associations are not causal, whereas amplificatory facts coincide in a way that defies causal explanation. That is the reason why I call spontaneous and artificial amplification a mere analogy of synchronicity. It is true, however, that we cannot prove a causal connection in e\路ery case of amplification, and thus it is quite possible that in a number of cases, where we assume causal "association," it is really a matter of synchronicity. What is "association" after all? We don't know. It is not impossible that psychic arrangement in general is based upon synchronicity with the exception of the secondary rational "enchainement" of psychic events in consciousness. This is analogous to the natural course of events, so different from our scientific and abstract recon路 struction of reality based upon the statistical average. The latter produces a picture of nature consisting of mere probabilities, whereas reality is a crisscross of more or less impracticable events. Our psychic life shows the same phenomenological picture. This is the reason why I am rather inclined to think that it would be presumptuous to suppose the psyche is based exclusively upon the synchronistic principle, at least in our present state of knowledge. I quite agree with your idea of the two complementary attitudes of understanding, viz., rational and irrational or synchronistic. But it remains to be seen whether all irrational events are meaningful coincidences. I doubt it. It is refreshing to see you at work with these interesting problems and to hear something intelligent from you instead of the amazing stupidities dished out by our contemporaries. ' [Handwritten, in English.]

508

LETTERS ON SYNCHRONICITY I2 I I

I2I2

I am sorry that I cannot come over to England to celebrate with you. I am writing in hospital, where I am nursing some prostatic trouble. Tomorrow I shall be dismissed for the time being. Old age is not exactly my idea of a joke. My best wishes, Yours cordially, C. G. JuNG P.S. As you are going to celebrate my 8oth birthday in London and I am unfortunately unable to attend I thought it might be a nice gesture if you could send an invitation to the Swiss Ambassador to Great Britain. I am sure that he would appreciate at least your friendly gesture to one of his countrymen.

5Â°9

THE FUTURE OF PARAPSYCHOLOGY The International Journal of Parapsychology (New York), in its 1963 autumn issue (V:4, pp. 450f.), published Jung's answers to a questionnaire which had been circulated in June 1960 among various authorities in connection with a survey on "The Future of Parapsychology." How do you define parapsychology? Parapsychology is the science dealing with those biological or psychological events which show that the categories of matter, space, and time (and thus of causality) are not axiomatic. Which areas of research, in your opinion, should be classified as belonging within parapsychology? 1 214 The psychology of the unconscious. Do you anticipate that future research would emphasize quantitative or qualitative work? 1215 Future research will have to emphasize both. Do you believe that a repeatable experiment is essential to strengthen the position of parapsychological studies within the scientific community? 1216 The repeatable experiment is desirable but, inasmuch as most of the events are spontaneous and irregular, the experimental method will not be generally applicable. Have you any comments on recent criticisms with regard to statistical methods employed in parapsychological studies? 12 1 7 The statistical method is most desirable and indispensable to scientific research, where and when it can be applied. But this is only possible when the material shows a certain regularity and comparability. Do you believe that certain qualitative researches may be quantified in order to gain wider acceptance? I 21 8 The quantification of qualitative research is surely the best means of conviction. In the qualitative area, where do you foresee the greatest potential for future research progress-spontaneous phenomena, crisis telepathy, survival studies, out-of-the-body experiences, or any other?

1213

510

THE FUTURE OF PARAPSYCHOLOGY I2 I9

1220

I 22 I

I 222

The greatest and most important part of parapsychological research will be the careful exploration and qualitative description of spontaneous events. Do you feel that during the past decade parapsychology has become more widely accepted among scientists active in other areas? My impression is that, in Europe, at least, open-mindedness has increased. Have you any comments regarding the psychological significance of certain psychic phenomena? The psychological significance of parapsychological events has hardly been explored yet. Have you any comments regarding the special psychological conditions that seem to favour, or reduce, the likelihood of an occurrence of psychic phenomena? The factor which favours the occurrence of parapsychological events is the presence of an active archetype, i.e., a situation in which the deeper, instinctual layers of the psyche are called into action. The archetype is a borderline phenomenon, characterized by a relativation of space and time, as already pointed out by Albertus Magnus (De mirabilibus mundi) ,1 whom I have mentioned in my paper "Synchronicity: An Acausal Connecting Principle." 1

[Incunabulum, undated, Zentralbibliothek, Zurich. Cf. C.W., vol. 8, par.

Bsg.J

THE ARCHETYPES AND THE COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS (related to Volume 9 of the Collected Works)

THE HYPOTHESIS OF THE COLLECTIYE UXCOXSCIOUS 1 I 223

I 22 4

225

Indications of the concept of a collecti\·e psyche are to be found in Leibniz's theory of "petites perceptions,'' also in Kant's anthropology. In Schelling the "eternally unconscious" is the absolute ground of consciousness. Despite different terminology Hegel's Yiew is similar. C. G. Carus was the first to base a deYeloped philosophical system on the concept of the unconscious. Related features may be found in Schopenhauer. Eduard YOn Hartmann exalted the unconscious to the concept of an absolute, uniwrsal Spirit. The scientific inYestigation of the psychological unconscious began with the discO\·ery of hypnotism and was continued Yia the Salpetriere school in the works of Janet and Flournoy. Independently of this, it was the Breuer-Freud discoYery of the aetiology of neurosis that led to Freud's sexual theory of the unconscious. Independent, again, of the Freudian school was the discoYery of the so-called "complexes" and "autonomous contents" of the unconscious by the author. Whereas for Freud the unconscious is essentially a function of consciousness, the author holds the unconscious to be an independent psychic function prior to consciousness and opposed to it. According to this Yiew the unconscious may be diYided into a personal and a rollectiL·e unconscious. The latter is a psychic propensity to a regular functioning, independent of time and race. Its products may be compared with "mythological motifs." Despite the autochthonous origin of the former, the two are analogous in principle, which may be taken as an indication of their conforming to psychological law. In the further course of the lecture the author, with the help of a special department of s~mbology, the so-called mandala symbolism, demonstrated the parallelism between the symbol of the circle, as produced by educated patients undergoing treatment, and [Author's abstract of a lecture deli\·ered at the Federal Polytechnic Institute (ETHl, Zurich. I Feb. 1932. Published in the f'ierteljahrschrift der Saturforschenden Gesellschaft in Zurich, LXX\' II. Pt. 2 (I 932\, i\·-Y. The ~fS of the original lecture has not been found. Cf. supra. pars. I I 43-45.]

X. THE ARCHETYPES AND THE COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS

the ritual mandalas of Iamaism and kundalini yoga, as well as the parallels with the views of the Tantrists, of classical Chinese philosophy, and Chinese yoga. Further parallels are children's drawings, the prehistoric mandalas of Rhodesia, the sand-paintings from the healing ceremonies (yaibichy dances) of the l'\avaho (Arizona), 2 the visions of Hildegard of Bingen from the Codex Lucca 3 (12th to 13th cent.), and the eschatological views of Jacob Boehme. 4 The modern pictorial material was derived from people who produced it spontaneously and were not in any way influenced. ~ 3

[Cf. Psychology and Alchemy, C.W., vol. [Ibid., fig. 195.] [Ibid., pars. 214-16.]

12,

fig.

1 1 o.]

FOREWORD TO .-\DLER: "E:\TDECKU:'\G DER SEELE''l

This book is a systematic account of the three different approaches now current in psychotherapy: Freud's, Alfred Adler's, and my own. Drawing on his wide professional knowledge, the author has carefully elaborated the principal viewpoints underlying each approach, and thus giws the reader, who may have neither the time nor the opportunity to study the originals, a complete and rigorously objectiYe sunÂˇey of this controversial field. The exposition and manner of expression are such that the educated layman can follow the argument without difficulty. 1 22 7 Psychological theories, which at the outset seemed destined for use only in the strictly delimited domain of medical psychotherapy, have long since burst the bounds of a specialized science, and have not only penetrated into the provinces of its sister sciences but become-even if fragmentarily-the common property of all educated persons. This means, however, that informed public opinion has been infected with the same confusion which still prevails today in medical psychology. What distinguishes Dr. Adler's work in particular is his thoroughly reliable and comprehensive account of my own views, which differ in so radical and characteristic a way from those of the other two investigators. His book, sober, lucid, and systematic, is a worthy companion to the earlier works by Kranefeldf and Heyer. 3 It is a milestone in the slow but sure conquest of the crises and confusions that hang over the psychological views of our day.

1226

December 1933 [Zurich, 1934. By Gerhard Adler, at that time in Berlin; after 1936, in England. ("Discovery of the Soul.")] ~[See infra, pars. 1727f., and Jung's introduction to W.M. Kranefeldt's Secret Ways of the Mind (C.W., vol. 4, pars. 745ff.) .] 3 [See infra, pars. 1774ff.] 1

FOREWORD TO HARDIXG: ,..\\'01\IA:\'S 1\IYSTERIES" 1 I 228

I 229

Esther Harding, the author of this book, is a physician and specialist in the treatment of psychogenic illness. She is a former pupil of mine who has endeavoured not only to understand the modem psyche but also, as the present book shows, to explore its historical background. Preoccupation with historical subjects may at first glance seem to be merely a physician's personal hobby, but to the psychotherapist it is a necessary part of his mental equipment. The psychology of primitives, folklore, mythology, and the science of comparative religion open our eyes to the wide horizons of the human psyche and give us that indispensable aid we so urgently need for an understanding of unconscious processes. Only when we see in what shape and what guise dream symbols, which seem to us unique, appear on the historical and ethnic scene, can we really understand what they are pointing at ..-\!so, once equipped with this extensiYe comparative material, we can comprehend more nearly that factor which is so decisive for psychic life, the archetype. Of course this term is not meant to denote an inherited idea, but rather an inherited mode of psychic functioning, corresponding to the inborn \vay in which the chick emerges from the egg, the bird builds its nest, a certain kind of wasp stings the motor ganglion of the caterpillar, and eels find their way to the Bermudas. In other words, it is a "pattern of behaviour." This aspect of the archetype, the purely biological one, is the proper concern of scientific psychology. But the picture changes at once when looked at from the inside, from within the realm of the subjective psyche. Here the archetype appears as a numinous factor, as an experience of fundamental significance. \\"hene\·er it clothes itself in suitable symbols (which 1

[:\f. Esther Harding. Woman's .\fysteries: Ancient and .\fodern; A Psychological Interpretation of the Feminine Principle as Portrared in Myth, Story, and Dreams. The original edn. (Ke"· York, I935) did not contain this foreword. which was written for the German trans., Frauen-.\fysterien (Zurich, I 949\: trans. by Edward Whitmont for the revised edn. of the book (New York, I 955'. The present Yer5ion is re\·ised. See supra, pars. I I 25ff.)

HARDING:

12 3Â°

12 31

"WOMAN'S MYSTERIES"

is not always the case), it seizes hold of the individual in a startling way, creating a condition amounting almost to possession, the consequences of which may be incalculable. It is for this reason that the archetype is so important in the psychology of religion. All religious and metaphysical concepts rest upon archetypal foundations, and, to the extent that we are able to explore them, we can cast at least a superficial glance behind the scenes of world history, and lift a little the veil of mystery which hides the meaning of metaphysical ideas. Metaphysics is, as it were, a physics or physiology of the archetypes, and its dogmas formulate the insights that have been gained into the nature of these dominants-the unconscious leitmotifs that characterize the psychic happenings of a given epoch. The archetype is "metaphysical" because it transcends consciousness. Dr. Harding's book is an attempt to describe some of the archetypal foundations of feminine psychology. In order to understand the author's intention, the reader must overcome the prejudice that psychology consists merely of what Mr. Smith and Mrs. Jones happen to know about it. The psyche consists not only of the contents of consciousness, which derive from sensory impressions, but also of ideas apparently based on perceptions which have been modified in a peculiar way by preexistent and unconscious formative factors, i.e., by the archetypes. The psyche can therefore be said to consist of consciousness plus the unconscious. This leads us to conclude that one part of the psyche is explicable in terms of recent causes, but that another part reaches back into the deepest layers of our racial history. Now the one certain fact about the nature of neurosis is that it is due to a disturbance of the primary instincts, or at least affects the instincts to a considerable degree. The evolution of human anatomy and of human instincts extends over geological periods of time. Our historical knowledge throws light upon only a few stretches of the way, whose total length would have to be reckoned in millions of miles. However, even that little bit is a help when, as psychotherapists, we are called upon to remedy a disturbance in the sphere of instinct. Here it is the therapeutic myths offered by religion that teach us the most. The religions might indeed be considered as psychotherapeutic systems which assist our understanding of instinctual disturbances, for these are not a recent phenomenon but have existed from time immemorial. Although certain types of disease, notably infectious ones like typhus antiquorum, may disappear and others take their place, it is still not very probable that 5 19

X. THE ARCHETYPES AND THE COLLECTIVE

1232

12 33

U~CO~SCIOUS

tuberculosis, shall we say, was an entirely different disease five or ten thousand years ago. The same is true of psychic processes. Therefore, in the descriptions of abnormal psychic states left us by antiquity, we are able to recognize certain features that are familiar to us; and when it comes to the fantasies of neurotic and psychotic patients, it is just here, in ancient literature, that we find the most illuminating parallels. From the empirical evidence, it has now been known for some time that any one-sidedness of the conscious mind, or a disturbance of the psychic equilibrium, elicits a compensation from the unconscious. The compensation is brought about by the constellation and accentuation of complementary material which assumes archetypal forms when the fonction du reel) or correct relation to the surrounding \-.Âˇorld, is disturbed. When, for instance, a woman develops too masculine an attitude-something that may very easily happen owing to the social emancipation of women today-the unconscious compensates this one-sidedness by a symptomatic accentuation of certain feminine traits. This process of compensation takes place within the personal sphere so long as the vital interests of the personality have not been harmed. But if more profound disturbances should occur, as when a women alienates herself from her husband through her insistence on always being in the right, then archetypal figures appear on the scene. Difficulties of this kind are very common, and once they have grown to pathological proportions they can be remedied only by psychotherapeutic methods. For this reason, it has long been the endeavour of analytical psychologists to acquire as v-.Âˇide a knowledge as possible of the network of archetypal images produced by the unconscious, with a view to understanding the nature of the archetypal compensation in each individual case. Dr. Harding's systematic survey of the archetypal material of feminine compensation comes as a most welcome contribution to these endeavours, and we must be grateful to her for having devoted herself to this task with such self-sacrificing effort in addition to her professional work. Her investigation is valuable and important not only for the specialist but for the educated layman who is interested in a psychology founded on experience of life and a knowledge of human nature. Our times, characterized as they are by an almost total di5orientation in regard to the ends of human existence, stand in need, aboYe all else, of a vast amount of psychological knowledge.

August 1948 520

FOREWORD TO NEUMANN: "THE ORIGINS AND HISTORY OF CONSCIOUS~ESS" 1

1234

12 35

The author has requested me to preface his book with a few words of introduction, and to this I accede all the more readily because I found his work more than usually welcome. It begins just where I, too, if I were granted a second lease of life, would start to gather up the disjecta membra of my own writings, to sift out all those "beginnings without continuations" and knead them into a whole. As I read through the manuscript of this book it became clear to me how great are the disadvantages of pioneer work: one stumbles through unknown regions; one is led astray by analogies, forever losing the Ariadne thread; one is overwhelmed by new impressions and new possibilities; and the worst disadvantage of all is that the pioneer only knows afterwards what he should have known before. The second generation has the advantage of a clearer, if still incomplete, picture; certain landmarks that at least lie on the frontiers of the essential have grown familiar, and one now knows what must be known if one is to explore the newly discovered territory. Thus forewarned and forearmed, a representative of the second generation can spot the most distant connections; he can unravel problems and give a coherent account of the whole field of study, whose full extent the pioneer can only survey at the end of his life's work. This difficult and meritorious task the author has performed with outstanding success. He has woven his facts into a pattern and created a unified whole, which no pioneer could have done nor could ever have attempted to do. As though in confirmation of this, the present work opens at the very place where I unwittingly made landfall on the new continent long ago, namely, the realm of matriarchal symbolism; and, as a conceptual framework for his discoveries, the author uses a symbol whose significance first dawned on me in my recent writings on the psychology of alchemy: the 1 [New York (Bollingen Series XLII), 1954; London, 1955. Trans. by R.F.C. Hull (including the foreword) from Ursprungsgeschichte des Bewusstseins (Zurich, 1949). Erich Neumann (1905~1g6o), originally German, later lived in Israel.]

521

X. THE ARCHETYPES AND THE COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS

1236

1237

uroboros. Upon this foundation he has succeeded in constructing a unique history of the evolution of consciousness, and at the same time is representing the body of myths as the phenomenology of this same evolution. In this way he arrives at conclusions and insights which are among the most important ever to be reached in this field. Naturally to me, as a psychologist, the most valuable aspect of the work is the fundamental contribution it makes to a psychology of the unconscious. The author has placed the concepts of analytical psychology-which for many people are so bewildering-on a firm evolutionary basis, and erected upon this a comprehensive structure in which the empirical forms of thought find their rightful place. No system can ever dispense with an over-all hypothesis which in its turn depends upon the temperament and subjective assumptions of the author as well as upon objective data. This factor is of the greatest importance in psychology, for the "personal equation" colours the mode of seeing. Ultimate truth, if there be such a thing, demands the concert of many voices. I can only congratulate the author on his achievement. May this brief foreword convey to him my heartfelt thanks. I

March 1949

522

FOREWORD TO ADLER: "STUDIES IN ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY" 1 1238

12 39

It gave me particular pleasure to hear that Dr. Gerhard Adler's admirable book Studies in Analytical Psychology is now to appear in German. The author is a skilled psychotherapist and therefore in a position to handle his theme on the basis of practical experience. This advantage can hardly be overrated, for therapeutic work means not only the daily application of psychological views and methods to living people and to sick people in particular, but also a daily criticism which success or failure brings to bear upon the therapy and its underlying assumptions. We may therefore expect from the author a well-pondered judgment amply backed by experience. In this expectation we are not disappointed. Everywhere in these essays we come across nicely balanced opinions and never upon prejudices, bigotries, or forced interpretations. With a happy choice the author has picked out a number of problems which must inevitably engage the attention of every thinking psychotherapist. First and foremost he has been concernedvery understandably-to stress the peculiarity of analytical psychology as compared with the materialistic and rationalistic tendencies of the Freudian school-an undertaking which, in view of the latter's delight in sectarian seclusion, has still lost nothing of its topicality. This is by no means a matter of specialist or merely captious differences that would not interest a wider public; it is more a matter of principle. A psychology that wants to be scientific can no longer afford to base itself on so-called philosophical premises such as materialism or rationalism. If it is not to overstep its competence irresponsibly, it can only proceed phenomenologically and abandon preconceived opinions'. But the opinion that we can pass transcendental judgments, even when faced with highly complicated material like that presented by psychological experience, is so ingrown that philosophical statements are still imputed to analyti1 [The foreword, not in the original edn. (London and New York, 1948), was written for the German edition, Zur ana/ytischen Psychologie (Zurich, 1952), and is included (trans. by R.F.C. Hull) in the new English edition (London, 1966; New York, 1967).]

X. THE ARCHETYPES AND THE COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS

cal psychology, although this is completely to misunderstand its phenomenological standpoint. I 2 4Â° A major interest of psychotherapy is, for practical reasons, the psychology of dreams, a field where theoretical assumptions have not only suffered the greatest defeats but are applied at their most odious. The dream analysis in the third essay is exemplary. I24I It is much to be welcomed that the author pays due attention to the important role of the ego. He thus counters the common prejudice that analytical psychology is only interested in the unconscious, and at the same time he gives instructive examples of the relations between the unconscious and the ego in general. I 242 The controversial question of whether, and if so how, the raising to consciousness of unconscious contents is therapeutically effective meets with adequate treatment. Although their conscious realization is a curative factor of prime importance, it is by no means the only one. Besides the initial "confession" and the emotional "abreaction" we have also to consider transference and symbolization. The present volume gives excellent illustrations of the latter two from case histories. I 2 43 It is much to the credit of the author that he has also turned to the religious aspect of psychic phenomena. This question is not only delicate-it is particularly apt to irritate philosophical susceptibilities. But, provided that people are able to read and to give up their prepossessions, I truly have no idea how anybody could feel himself affronted by the author's remarks-prO\Âˇided, again, that the reader is able to understand the phenomenological viewpoint of science. Unhappily this understanding, as I often had occasion to know, does not appear to be particularly widespread-least of all, it would seem, in professional medical circles. The theory of knowledge does not of course figure in the medical curriculum, but is indispensable to the study of psychology. 2 I 44 Not only on account of the lucidity of its exposition, but also because of its wealth of illustrative case histories, this book fills a gap in psychological literature. It gives both the professional and the psychologically minded layman a welcome set of bearings in territory which-at any rate to begin with-most people find rather hard of access. But the examples drawn direct from life offer an equally direct approach, and this is an aid to understanding. I would therefore like to recommend this book most cordially to the reading public.

May 1949

FOREWORD TO JUNG: "GESTALTUKGE::\ DES UKBEWUSSTEK" ( rgso) 1 In so far as poetry is one of those psychic activities that give shape to the contents of the unconscious, it seems to me not unfitting to open this volume with an essay which is concerned with a number of fundamental questions affecting the poet and his work. 1 a This discussion is followed by a lecture on the rebirth motif, 2 given on the occasion of a symposium on this theme. Drama, the principal theme of poetic art, had its origin in ceremonial, magically effective rites which, in form and meaning, represented a 3pwf-LEPoll or Dpaf-La, something "acted" or "done." During this time the tension builds up until it culminates in a 7rEperreTELa, the denouement, and is resolved. :Menacingly, the span of life narrows down to the fear of death, and out of this angustiae (straits, quandary, wretchedness, distress) a new birth emerges, redemptive and opening on to larger horizons. It is evident that drama is a reflection of an eminently psychological situation which, infinitely varied, repeats itself in human life and is both the expression and the cause of a universally disseminated archetype clothed in multitudinous forms. 12 46 The third contribution is a case history. 3 It is the description of a process of transformation illustrated by pictures. This study is supplemented by a survey of mandala symbolism drawn from case material. 4 The interpretation of these pictures is in the main formal and, unlike the preceding essay, lays more emphasis on the common denominators in the pictures than on their individual psychology. 12 47 The fifth and last contribution is a psychological study of E.T.A. Hoffmann's tale "The Golden Pot," by Aniela Jaffe. 5 This tale of Hoffmann's has long been on my list of literary creations which

1245

[ ("Configurations of the Unconscious.") Psychologische Abhandlungen, VI I. For contents, see the following notes.] la ["Psychology and Literature" (in C.W., vol. 15) .] ~["Concerning Rebirth" (in C.W., vol. g, i).) 3 ["A Study in the Process of Individuation" (ibid.).] 4 ["Concerning Mandala Symbolism" (ibid.).] 5 ["Bilder und Symbole aus E.T.A. Hoffmanns Marchen 'Der goldne Topf.' "]

X. THE ARCHETYPES AND THE COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS

cry out for interpretation and deeper understanding. I am greatly indebted to Mrs. Jaffe for having undertaken the not inconsiderable labour of investigating the psychological background of "The Golden Pot," thus absolving me from a task which I felt to be an obligation. january 1949

FOREWORD TO WICKES: "VON DER INNEREN WELT DES l\1ENSCHEN" 1 I248

I 2 49

Frances G. Wickes' book, which first appeared in America in 1938, 2 is now available in a German translation. It is the fruit of a long and industrious life, uncommonly rich in experience of people of all classes and ages. Anyone who wishes to form a picture of the inner life of the psyche and broaden his knowledge of psychic phenomena in general is warmly recommended to read this book. The author has taken the greatest pains to express the inner experiences of her patients with the help of the viewpoints I have introduced into psychology. Her collection of case histories is of the greatest value to the skilled psychotherapist and practising psychologist, not to mention the layman, for whom she opens vistas into a world of experience hitherto inaccessible to him. If, as in this book, fantasy is taken for what it is-a natural expression of life which we can at most seek to understand but cannot correct-it will yield possibilities of psychic development that are of the utmost importance for the cure of psychogenic neuroses and of the milder psychotic disturbances. Fantasies should not be negatively valued by subjecting them to rationalistic prejudices; they also have a positive aspect as creative compensations of the conscious attitude, which is always in danger of incompleteness and one-sidedness. Fantasy is a self-justifying biological function, and the question of its practical use arises only when it has to be channeled into so-called concrete reality. So long as this situation has not arisen, it is completely beside the point to explain fantasy in terms of some preconceived theory and to declare it invalid, or to reduce it to some other biological process. Fantasy is the natural life of the psyche, which at the same time harbours in itself the irrational creative factor. The neurotic's involuntary over- or under1 [Zurich, I 953Âˇ Frances G. Wickes (I 875-1967), American psychotherapist, was influenced by Jung's theories. Cf. Jung's introduction to her Analyse der Kinderseele (The Inner World of Childhood, 1927), C.W., vol. 17, pars. 8off.] 2 [The Inner World of Man (New York and Toronto), without this foreword (which was also published in E. D. Kirkham's trans. in the Bulletin of the Analytical Psychology Club of New York, I 6: 2, Feb. I 954) .]

X. THE ARCHETYPES AND THE COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS

valuation of fantasy is as injurious to the life of the psyche as its rationalistic condemnation or suppression, for fantasy is not a sickness but a natural and vital activity which helps the seeds of psychic development to grow. Frances Wickes illustrates this in exemplary fashion by describing the typical figures and phases that are encountered in involuntary fantasy processes. September 1953

FOREWORD TO JUI\G: ''YOI\ DE:'\ WURZEL\ DES BEWUSSTSEI:'\S" ( 1954) 1 I 250

I 25 I

In this ninth volume of the "Psychologische Abhandlungen" I have put together a number of works which for the most part grew out of Eranos lectures. Some have been revised, some augmented, and some completely reworked. The essay on "The Philosophical Tree" is new, although I have dealt with this theme earlier in a sketchy way. The central theme of this book is the archetype, the nature and significance of which are described and elucidated from various angles: history, psychology both practical and theoretical, case material. In spite of the fact that this theme has often been discussed by me as well as by other authors, such as Heinrich Zimmer, Karl Kerenyi, Erich Neumann, :Mircea Eliade, etc., it has proved to be both inexhaustible and particularly difficult to comprehend, if one may give credence to criticisms vitiated by prejudice and misunderstanding. One is left with the suspicion that the psychological standpoint and its consequences are felt in many quarters to be disagreeable and for this reason are not permitted a hearing. The simplistic approach is instantly assured of the applause of the public because it pretends to make the answering of difficult questions superfluous, but well-founded observations that cast doubt on things which appear simple and settled arouse displeasure. The theory of archetypes seems to come into this category. For some it is self-evident and a welcome aid in understanding s~mbol-formation, individual as well as historical and collective. For others it seems to epitomize an annoying aberration that has to be extirpated by all possible means, however ridiculous. Although it is easy to demonstrate the existence and efficacy of the archetypes, their phenomenology leads to really difficult questions of which I have given a few samples in this book. For the present there is still no possibility of simplification and of building highways "that fools may not err." .\fay 1953 ("From the Roots of Consciousness.") Contents: "Archetypes of the Collective Unconscious," "Concerning the Archetypes, '"ith Special Reference to the Anima Concept," "Psychological Aspects of the Mother Archetype" (all in C.W., vol. g, i); "The Visions of Zosimos" (in C.W., vol. I3); "Transformation Symbolism in the Mass" (in C.W., vol. I I); "The Philosophical Tree" (in C.W., vol. I3); "On the Nature of the Psyche" (in C.W., ,Âˇol. 8).] 1 [

FOREWORD TO VAN HELSDIXGE~: "BEELDEl'\ UIT HET ONBEWUSTE" 1 1252

1253

Dr. R. J. van Helsdingen has asked me to write a foreword to his book. I am happy to comply with his request for a particular reason: the case that is discussed and commented on was one that I treated many years ago, as can now be said publicly with the kind permission of my former patient. Such liberality is not encountered everywhere, because many one-time patients are understandably shy about exposing their intimate, tormenting, pathogenic problems to the eye of the public. And indeed one must admit that their drawings or paintings do not as a rule have anything that would recommend them to the aesthetic needs of the public at large. If only for technical reasons the pictures are usually unpleasant to look at and, lacking artistic power, ha\Âˇe little expressive value for outsiders. These shortcomings are happily absent in the present case: the pictures are artistic compositions in the positive sense and are uncommonly expressive. They communicate their frightening, daemonic content to the beholder and convince him of the terrors of a fantastic underworld. While it was the patient's own mother country that produced the great masters of the monstrous, Hieronymus Bosch and others, who opened the flood-gates of creative fantasy, the pictures in this book show us imaginative activity unleashed in another form: the Indomalaysian phantasmagoria of pullulating vegetation and of fear-haunted, stifling tropical nights. Environment and inner disposition conspired to produce this series of pictures which give expression to an infantile-archaic fear. Partly it is the fear of a child who, deprived of her parents, is defencelessly exposed to the unconscious and its menacing, phantasmal figures; partly the fear of a European who can find no other attitude to everything that the East conjures up in her save that of rejection and repression. Because the European does not know his own unconscious, he does not understand the East and projects into it everything he fears and despises in himself. 1

[Arnhem (Netherlands), 195 7. ("Pictures from the Unconscious.") Foreword in German.)

530

VAN HELSDINGEN:

"BEELDEN UIT HET ONBEWUSTE"

For a sensitive child it is a veritable catastrophe to be removed from her parents and sent to Europe after the unconscious influence of the Oriental world had moulded her relation to the instincts, and then, at the critical period of puberty, to be transported back to the East, when this development had been interrupted by Western education and crippled by neglect. 2 The pictures not only illustrate the phase of treatment that brought the contents of her neurosis to consciousness, they were also an instrument of treatment, as they reduced the half conscious or unconscious images floating about in her mind to a common denominator and fixated them. Once an expression of this kind has been found, it proves its "magical" efficacy by putting a spell, as it were, on the content so represented and making it relatively innocuous. The more complex this content is, the more pictures are needed to depotentiate it. The therapeutic effect of this technique consists in inducing the conscious mind to collaborate with the unconscious, the latter being integrated in the process. In this way the neurotic dissociation is gradually remedied. 12 55 The author is to be congratulated on having edited this valuable and unusual material. Although only the initial stages of the analysis are presented here, some of the pictures indicate possibilities of a further development. Even with these limitations, however, the case offers a considerable enrichment of the literature on the subject, which is still very meagre.

1 2 54

May 1954 2 [This case is not to be confused with the similar case-the patients were in fact sisters-discussed in "The Realities of Practical Psychotherapy," appendix to The Practice of Psychotherapy ( C.W., vol. 16, 2nd edn.) .]

531

FOREWORD TO JACOBI: "CO~IPLEXjARCHETYPEjSY~IBOL" 1

The problem this book is concerned with is one in which I, too, have been interested for a long time. It is now exactly fifty years since I learned, thanks to the associaton experiment, the role which complexes play in our conscious life. The thing that most impressed me was the peculiar autonomy the complexes display as compared with the other contents of consciousness. \\'hereas the latter are under the control of the will, coming or going at its command, complexes either force themselves on our consciousness by breaking through its inhibiting effect, or else, just as suddenly, they obstinately resist our conscious intention to reproduce them. Complexes have not only an obsessive, but Yery often a possessive, character, behaving like imps and giving rise to all sorts of annoying, ridiculous, and revealing actions, slips of the tongue, and falsifications of memory and judgment. They cut acro~s the adapted performance of consciousness. I 25 7 It was not difficult to see that while complexes owe their relative autonomy to their emotional nature, their expression is always dependent on a network of associations grouped round a centre charged with affect. The central emotion generally proved to be individually acquired, and therefore an exclusively personal matter. Increa~ing experience showed, however, that the complexes are not infinitely \Âˇariable, but mostly belong to definite categories, which soon began to acquire their popular, and by now hackneyed, names-inferiority complex, power complex, father complex, mother complex, anxiety complex, and all the rest. This fact, that there are well-characterized and easily recognizable types of complex, suggests that they rest on equally typical foundations, that is, on emotional aptitudes or instincts. In human beings instincts express themsehÂˇes in the form of unreflected, involuntary fantasy images, attitudes, and actions, which bear an inner resemblance

256

1 [Iolande Jacobi, Komplex!Archetypus/Symbol in der Psychologie C. G. ]ungs (Zurich, I957), trans. by Ralph Manheim (New York, Bollingen Series L \'I I, and London, I 959 I. The foreword was trans. by R.F .C. Hull. For

Jacobi, see supra, pars.

I I 2 Iff.]

532

JACOBI:

1 258

"cOl\IPLEXj.-\RCHETYPEjSYl\IBOL.,

to one another and yet are identical with the instinctive reactions specific of Homo sapiens. They have a dynamic and a formal aspect. Their formal aspect expresses itself, among other things, in fantasy images that are surprisingly alike and can be found practically everywhere at all epochs, as might have been expected. Like the instincts, these images have a relatively autonomous character; that is to say, they are "numinous" and can be found above all in the realm of numinous or religious ideas. For reasons that I cannot enter into here, I have chosen the term "archetype" for this formal aspect of the instinct. Dr. Jacobi has made it her task, in this book, to expound the important connection on the one hand between the individual complex and the universal, instinctual archetype, and on the other hand between this and the symbol. The appearance of her study is the more welcome to me in that the concept of the archetype has given rise to the greatest misunderstandings and-if one may judge by the adverse criticisms-must be presumed to be very difficult to comprehend. Anyone, therefore, who has misgivings on this score can seek information in this volume, which also takes account of much of the literature. My critics, with but few exceptions, usually do not take the trouble to read over what I have to say on the subject, but impute to me, among other things, the opinion that the archetype is an inherited idea. Prejudices seem to be more convenient than seeking the truth. In this respect, too, I hope that the author's endeavours, especially the theoretical considerations contained in Part I, illustrated by examples of the archetype's mode of manifestation and operation in Part II, may shed a little illumination. I am grateful to her for having spared me the labour of having constantly to refer my readers to my own writings.

February 1956

533

FOREWORD TO BERTI:\"E: "HUMAN RELA TIOI'\SHIPS'' 1 I

259

26o

The author of this book has undertaken the important task of investigating the problems of human relationship from the standpoint of analytical psychology, an undertaking which will be welcome not only to the psychotherapist but also to those interested in the wider field of general psychology. Facts that are of the greatest significance for an understanding of human relationships have undoubtedly come to light in the course of my own and my colleagues' researches. While the conclusions which Freud and Adler had drawn from their intensive studies of neurosis were based on the personal psychology of their neurotic patients, which they tried to apply to the psychology of society, analytical psychology has called attention to more general human facts which also play an important role in neurosis but are not specifically characteristic of it, being a normal part of the human constitution. I would mention in particular the existence of differences in type, such as extraversion and introversion, which are not difficult for a layman to recognize. It is obvious that these two diametrically opposed attitudes must have a very decisive influence on the relationship of individuals, and the psychology of the function types-thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition-further differentiates the general effects of extraversion and introversion. These attitude and function types belong mainly to man's conscious psychology. The researches of analytical psychology have shown, further, that it is not only the data of the senses and unconscious personal repressions which exert an influence of consciousness. It is also profoundly affected by unconscious, instinctive-that is, innate-patterns of psychic behaviour. These patterns are just as characteristic of man as are the instincts in the behaviour of animals. But while we know about the instinctive patterns in ani1

[New York and London, I958. Jung wrote the foreword for the Swiss edn., I 95 7), and it was trans. by Barbara Hannah for the English edn. It appears here in slightly revised form. Eleanor Bertine ( 1887-1968) was an American analytical psychologist.}

Af enschliche Beziehungen (Zurich,

534

BERTINE:

1261

"HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS"

mals only by observing their outward behaviour, the human psyche offers a great advantage in that-thanks to ideas and language-the instinctive process can be visualized in the form of fantasy images, and this inner perception can be communicated to an outside observer by means of speech. If the animal psyche were capable of such an accomplishment, we would be able to recognize the mythology which the weaver bird is expressing when it builds its nest, and the yucca moth when it deposits its eggs in the yucca ftower. 2 That is, we would know what kind of fantasy images trigger off their instinctive actions. This insight, however, is possible only in the case of human beings, where it opens up the boundless world of myth and folklore that spans the globe with analogies and parallel motifs. The images which appear here conform with those in dreams and hallucinations to an astonishing degree, to say the least. This discovery was actually made by Freud, and he erected a monument to it in his concept of the Oedipus complex. He was gripped by the numinosity of this motif, or archetype, and accordingly gave it a central place in his theory-building. But he failed to draw the further and inescapable conclusion that there must be another, "normal" unconscious beyond the one produced by arbitrary repressions. This "normal" unconscious consists of what Freud described as "archaic remnants." But if the Oedipus complex represents a universal type of instinctive behaviour independent of time, place, and individual conditioning, it follows inevitably that it cannot be the only one. Although the incest complex is undoubtedly one of the most fundamental and best known complexes, it must obviously have its feminine counterpart which will express itself in corresponding forms. (At the time I proposed calling it the Electra complex.)~ But incest, after all, is not the only complication in human life, though this sometimes seems to be the case according to Freudian psychology. There are also other typical patterns which regulate the relation of father to son, mother to daughter, parents to children, brothers and sisters to each other, and so on. Oedipus is only one of the existing patterns and determines only the behaviour of the son, and this only up to a point. Mythology, folklore, dreams, and psychoses do not fall short in this respect. They offer a veritable plethora of patterns and formulas not only 2

[Cf. "Instinct and the Unconscious" (C.W., vol. 8), pars. 268, 277.] ( 191 2), (C. W ., vol. 4), pars. 34 7ff. Cf. Freud's comment, "An Outline of Psycho-Analysis" ( 1940), Std. Edn., XXIII, p. 194-l

'l ["The Theory of Psychoanalysis"

535

X. THE ARCHETYPES AKD THE COLLECTIVE

I 2 62

263

C~CONSCIOUS

for family relationships but also for man and woman, individual and society, conscious and unconscious, dangers to body and soul, and so forth. These archetypes exert a decisive influence on human relationships. Here I would mention only the eminently practical significance of the animus (the archetype of man in woman) and anima (the archetype of woman in man), which are the source of so much fleeting happiness and long-drawn-out suffering in marriage and friendship. The author has much to say about these things, based on her medical practice and on her arduous but rewarding work with people. She desenÂˇes to be heard, and I hope her book will find a large number of attentive readers. August 1956

PREFACE TO DE LASZLO: "PSYCHE AND SYMBOL" 1 Dr. de Laszlo has risked shocking the American reader by including some of my most difficult essays in her selection from my writings. In sympathy with the reader I acknowledge how tempting if not unavoidable it is to fall into the trap of appearances as the eye wanders over the pages in a vain attempt to get at the gist of the matter in the shortest possible time. I know of so many who, opening one of my books and, stumbling upon a number of Latin quotations, shut it with a bang, because Latin suggests history and therefore death and unreality. I am afraid my works demand some patience and some thinking. I know: it is very hard on the reader who expects to be fed by informative headlines. It is not the conscientious scientist's way to bluff the public with impressive resumes and bold assertions. He tries to explain, to produce the necessary evidence, and thus to create a basis for understanding. In my case, moreover, understanding is not concerned with generally known facts, but rather with those that are little known or even new. It was therefore incumbent upon me to make these facts known. In so far as such unexpected novelties demand equally unexpected means of explanation I found myself confronted with the task of explaining the very nature of my evidential material. I 2 65 The facts are experiences gained from a careful and painstaking analysis of certain psychic processes observed in the course of psychic treatment. As these facts could not be satisfactorily explained by themselves, it was necessary to look round for possible comparisons. When, for instance, one comes across a patient who produces symbolic mandalas in his dreams or his waking imagination and proceeds to explain these circular images in terms of certain sexual or other fantasies, this explanation carries no conviction, seeing that another patient develops wholly different motivations. Nor is it permissible to assume that a sexual fantasy is a more likely motivation than, for instance, a power drive, since we know from

264

[A selection from the writings of C. G. Jung, ed. by Violet S. de Laszlo (Anchor Books, New York, I958). The foreword appears here in slightly revised form.)

537

X. THE ARCHETYPES AND THE COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS

1266

experience that the individual's disposition will of necessity lead him to give preference to the one or the other. Both patients, on the other hand, may have one fact in common-a state of mental and moral confusion. We would surely do better to follow up this clue and try to discover whether the circular images are connected with such a state of mind. Our third case producing mandalas is perhaps a schizophrenic in such a disturbed state that he cannot even be asked for his accompanying fantasies. This patient is obviously completely dissolved in a chaotic condition. Our fourth case is a little boy of seven who has decorated the corner of the room where his bed stands with numerous mandalas without which he cannot go to sleep. He only feels safe when they are around him. His fantasy tells him that they protect him against nameless fears assailing him in the night. What is his confusion? His parents are contemplating divorce. 2 And what shall we say of a hard-boiled scientific rationalist who produced mandalas in his dreams and in his waking fantasies? He had to consult an alienist, as he was about to lose his reason because he had suddenly become assailed by the most amazing dreams and visions. What was his confusion? The clash between two equally real worlds, one external, the other internal: a fact he could no longer deny. 3 There is no need to prolong this series since, leaving aside all theoretical prejudices, the underlying reason for producing a mandala seems to be a certain definable mental state. But have we any evidence which might explain why such a state should produce a mandala? Or is this mere chance? Consequently we must ask whether our experiences are the only ones on record and, if not, where we can find comparable occurrences. There is no difficulty in finding them; plenty of parallels exist in the Far East and the Far West, or right here in Europe, several hundred years ago. The books of reference can be found in our university libraries, but for the last two hundred years nobody has read them, and they are-oh horror !-written in Latin and some even in Greek. But are they dead? Are those books not the distant echo of life once lived, of minds and hearts quick with passions, hopes, and visions, as keen as our own? Does it matter so much whether the pages before us tell the story of a patient still alive, or dead for fifty years? Does it really matter whether their confessions, their anguish, their strivings speak the English of today or Latin or Greek? No matter ~ 3

[Cf. "Concerning Mandala Symbolism" (C.W., vol. g,i), par. 687 and fig. 33.] [Cf. the dream series in Psychology and Alchemy, C.W., vol. 12, Part II.]

538

DE LASZLO:

"PSYCHE AND SYMBOL"

how much we are of today, there has been a yesterday, which was just as real, just as human and warm, as the moment we call Now, which-alas-in a few hours will be a yesterday as dead as the first of January an no Domini 1300. A good half of the reasons why things now are what they are lies buried in yesterday. Science in its attempt to establish causal connections has to refer to the past. We teach comparative anatomy, why not comparative psychology? The psyche is not only of today, it reaches right back to prehistoric ages. Has man really changed in ten thousand years? Have stags changed their antlers in this short lapse of time? Of course the hairy man of the Ice Ages has become unrecognizable when you try to discover him among the persons you meet on Fifth Avenue. But you will be amazed when you have talked with them for a hundred hours about their intimate life. You will then read the mouldy parchments as if they were the latest thrillers. You will find the secrets of the modern consulting room curiously expressed in abbreviated mediaeval Latin or in an intricate Byzantine hand. What the doctor can hear, when he listens attentively, of fantasies, dreams, and intimate experiences is not mentioned in the Encyclopaedia Britannica or in textbooks and scientific journals. These secrets are jealously guarded, anxiously concealed, and greatly feared and esteemed. They are very private possessions, never divulged and talked about, because they are feared as ridiculous and revered as revelations. They are numinous, a doubtful treasure, perhaps comical, perhaps miraculous, at all events a painfully vulnerable spot, yet presiding over all the crossroads of one's individual life. They are officially and by general consent just as unknown and despised as the old parchments with their indecipherable and unaesthetic hieroglyphics, evidence of old obscurantisms and foolishness. We are ignorant of their contents, and we are equally ignorant of what is going on in the deeper layers of our unconscious, because "those who know do not talk, those who talk do not know." 4 As inner experiences of this kind increase, the social nexus between human beings decreases. The individual becomes isolated for no apparent reason. Finally this becomes unbearable and he has to confide in someone. Much will then depend on whether he is properly understood or not. It would be fatal if he were to be misinterpreted. Fortunately, such people are instinctively careful and as a rule do not talk more than necessary. When one hears a confession of this kind, and the patient wc:.nts â&#x20AC;˘ [Tao-te-ching, ch. 56.]

539

X. THE ARCHETYPES AND THE COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS

to understand himself better, some comparative knowledge will be most helpful. When the hard-boiled rationalist mentioned above came to consult me for the first time, he was in such a state of panic that not only he but I myself felt the wind blowing over from the lunatic asylum! As he was telling me of his experiences in detail he mentioned a particularly impressive dream. I got up and fetched an ancient volume from my bookshelf and showed it to him, saying: "You see the date? Just about four hundred years old. I\' ow watch!" I opened the book at the place where there was a curious woodcut, representing his dream almost literally. "You see," I said, "your dream is no secret. You are not the victim of a pathological insult and not separated from mankind by an inexplicable psychosis. You are merely ignorant of certain experiences well within the bounds of human knowledge and understanding." It was worth seeing the relief which came over him. He had seen with his own eyes the documentary evidence of his sanity. 1269 This illustrates why historical comparison is not a mere learned hobby but very practical and useful. It opens the door to life and humanity again, which had seemed inexorably closed. It is of no ultimate advantage to deny or reason away or ridicule such seemingly abnormal or out-of-the-way experiences. They should not get lost, because they contain an intrinsic individual value, the loss of which entails definite damage to one's personality. One should be aware of the high esteem which in past centuries was felt for such experiences, because it explains the extraordinary importance that we ignorant moderns are forced to attribute to them in spite of oursehÂˇes. 1270 Understanding an illness does not cure it, but it is a definite help because you can cope with a comprehensible difficulty far more easily than with an incomprehensible darkness. Even if in the end a rational explanation cannot be reached, you know at least that you are not the only one confronted by a "merely imaginary" wall, but one of the many who have vainly tried to climb it. You still share the common human lot and are not cut off from humanity by a subjective defect. Thus you have not suffered the irreparable loss of a personal value and are not forced to continue your way on the crutches of a dry and lifeless rationalism. On the contrary, you find new courage to accept and integrate the irrationality of your own life and of life in general. 1271 Instincts are the most conservative determinants of any kind of life. The mind is not born a tabula rasa. Like the body, it has

54Â°

DE LASZLO:

"PSYCHE AND SYMBOL"

its predetermined individual aptitudes: namely, patterns of behaviour. They become manifest in the ever-recurring patterns of psychic functioning. As the weaver-bird will infallibly build its nest in the accustomed form, so man despite his freedom and superficial changeability will function psychologically according to his original patterns-up to a certain point; that is, until for some reason he collides with his still living and ever-present instinctual roots. The instincts will then protest and engender peculiar thoughts and emotions, which will be all the more alien and incomprehensible the more man's consciousness has deviated from its original conformity to these instincts. As nowadays mankind is threatened with selfdestruction through radioactivity, we are experiencing a fundamental reassertion of our instincts in various forms. I have called the psychological manifestations of instinct "archetypes." I 2 72 The archetypes are by no means useless archaic survivals or relics. They are living entities which cause the preformation of numinous ideas or dominant representations. Insufficient understanding, however, accepts these prefigurations in their archaic form, because they have a numinous fascination for the underdeveloped mind. Thus Communism is an archaic, highly insidious pattern of life which characterizes primitive social groups. It implies lawless chieftainship as a vitally necessary compensation, a fact which can be overlooked only by means of a rationalistic bias, the prerogative of a barbarous mind. I 273 It is important to remember that my concept of the archetypes has been frequently misunderstood as denoting inherited ideas or as a kind of philosophical speculation. In reality they belong to the realm of instinctual activity and in that sense they represent inherited patterns of psychic behaviour. As such they are invested with certain dynamic qualities which, psychologically speaking, are characterized as "autonomy" and "numinosity." I 2 74 I do not know of any more reliable way back to the instinctual basis than through an understanding of these psychological patterns, which enable us to recognize the nature of an instinctive attitude. The instinct to survive is aroused as a reaction against the tendency to mass suicide represented by the H-bomb and the underlying political schism of the world. The latter is clearly man-made and due to rationalistic distortions. Conversely, if understood by a mature mind, the archetypal preformations can yield numinous ideas ahead of our actual intellectual level. That is just what our time is in need of. This, it seems to me, is an additional incentive to 54 1

X. THE ARCHETYPES AND THE COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS

1275

pay attention to the unconscious processes which in many persons today anticipate future developments. I must warn the reader: this hook will not be an easy pastime. Once in a while he will meet with thoughts which demand the effort of concentration and careful reflection-a condition unfortunately rare in modern times. On the other hand, the situation today seems to be serious enough to cause at least uneasy dreams if nothing else. August 1957

542

FOREWORD TO BRUNNER: "DIE ANI~IA ALS SCHICKSALSPROBLEM DES MANNES" 1 12 76

1277

The antecedents of this book are such that it might give rise to misunderstandings unless the reader is acquainted with them beforehand. Let me therefore say at once that its subject-matter is a dialogue extending over a period of eight years. The partners to this dialogue made it a condition from the start that the record they kept of it should be as honest and complete as was humanly possible. In order to fulfil this condition, and not restrict it to the conscious aspects of the situation, they made it their task to take note also of the unconscious reactions that accompanied or followed the dialogue. Obviously, this ambitious project could be completed only if the unconscious reactions of both partners were recorded. A "biographical" debate of such a nature would indeed be something unique in our experience, requiring exceptionally favourable circumstances for its realization. In view of the unusual difficulties she was faced with, the author deserves our thanks for having reproduced, scrupulously and in all the necessary detail, at least threequarters of the dialogue. Her experiment will be acclaimed by all those who are interested in the real life of the psyche, and more particularly because it gives a vivid account of a typical masculine problem which invariably arises in such a situation. Although every case of this kind follows an archetypal ground plan, its value and significance lie in its uniqueness, and this uniqueness is the criterion of its objectivity. The true carrier of reality is the individual, and not the "statistical average" who is a mere abstraction. So if the author confines her observations to two persons only, this shows her feeling for the psychological facts. The value of the personality, too, lies in its uniqueness, and not in its collective and statistical qualities, which are merely those of human species and, as such, irreducible factors of a suprapersonal nature. Although the limitation to two persons creates an "unscientific" impression 1

[Vol. XIV of Studien aus dem C. G. Jung Institut (Zurich, 1 g63), by Cornelia Brunner. ("The Anima as a Problem in the Man's Fate.") J

543

X. THE ARCHETYPES AND THE COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS

12 78

of subjectivity, it is actually a guarantee of psychological objectivity: this is how real psychic life behaves, this is what happens in reality. That part of it which can be formulated theoretically belongs to the common foundations of psychic life and can therefore be observed just as easily under other conditions and in other individuals. Scientific insight is essentially a by-product of a psychological process of dialectic. During this process, "true" and "untrue," "right" and "wrong" are valid only in the moral sense and cannot be judged by any general criterion of "truth" or "rightness." "True" and "right" simply tell us whether what is happening is "true" or "right" for the person concerned. The reader of this book is thus an invisible listener at a serious dialogue between two cultivated persons of our time, who discuss the various questions that come their way. Both of them make their contribution in complete freedom and remain true to their purpose throughout. I lay particular emphasis on this because it is by no means certain at the outset that such a dialogue will be continued. Often these discussions come to an abrupt stop for lack of enthusiasm in one partner or both, or for some other reason, good or bad. Very often, too, they give up at the first difficulty. The circumstances must have been unusually favourable for the dialogue to have continued over such a long period of time. Special credit is due to the author for having recorded the proceedings on two levels at once and successfully communicated them to the outside world. The thoughts and interior happenings she describes form a most instructive document humain, but its very uniqueness exposes it to the danger of being misunderstood and contemptuously brushed aside as a "subjective fantasy." For it is concerned mainly with that special relationship which Freud summed up under the term "transference," whose products he regarded as "infantile fantasies." As a result of this devaluation and rationalistic prejudice, their importance as phenomena of psychic transformation was not recognized. This scientific sin of omission is only one link in the long chain of devaluation of the human psyche that has nothing to justify it. It is a symptom of profound unconsciousness that our scientific age has lost sight of the paramount importance of the psyche as a fundamental condition of human existence. What is the use of technological improvements when mankind must still tremble before those infantile tyrants, ridiculous yet terrible, in the style of Hitler? Figures like these owe their power only to the frightening immaturity of the man of today, and to his barbarous unconscious544

BRUNNER:

1279

12Bo

"DIE ANIMA ALS SCHICKSALSPROBLEM DES MANNES"

ness. Truly we can no longer afford to underestimate the importance of the psychic factor in world affairs and to go on despising the efforts to understand psychic processes. We are still very far from understanding where we ourselves are at fault, and this book should grant us a deep insight. It is, indeed, only a random sample, but all experience consists of just that. Without individual experience there can be no general insight. The author has done well to take a well-known case from the history of literature as an introduction to the real piece de resistance of her book. The case is that of Rider Haggard, who was affiicted with a similar problem. (One might also mention Pierre Benoit and Gerard de Nerval.) Rider Haggard is without doubt the classic exponent of the anima motif, though it had already appeared among the humanists of Renaissance, for instance, as the nymph Polia in the Hypnerotomachia of Francesco Colonna, 2 or as a psychological concept in the writings of Richard White of Basingstoke, 3 or as a poetic figure among the "fedeli d'amore." 4 The motif of the anima is developed in its purest and most naive form in Rider Haggard. True to his name, he remained her faithful knight throughout his literary life and never wearied of his conversation with her. He was a spiritual kinsman of Rene d'Anjou, a latter-day troubadour or knight of the Grail, who had somehow blundered into the Victorian Age and was himself one of its most typical representatives. What else could he do but spin his strange tale of past centuries, harking back to the figures of Simon Magus and Helena, Zosimos and Theosebeia, in the somewhat sorry form of a popular "yarn?" Psychology, unfortunately, cannot take aesthetic requirements into account. The greatness and importance of a motif like that of the anima bear no relation to the form in which it is presented. If Rider Haggard uses the modest form of a yarn, this does not detract from the psychological value of its content. Those who seek entertainment or the higher art can easily find something better. But anyone who wants to gain insight into his own anima will find food for thought in She, precisely because of the simplicity and naivete of presentation, which is entirely devoid of any "psychological" intent. [Cf. infra, pars, 1749ff.] [Cf. Jung, Mysterium Coniunctionis, C.W., vol. 14, pars. 91ff.] 4 [Mystical cult in Sufism; its attitudes are compared to those of Dante toward Beatrice. See Corbin, Creative Imagination in the $iifism of Ibn 'Arabi, esp. Part II, pp. 136ff.] 2

545

X. THE ARCHETYPES AND THE COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS I

28 I

I 282

Rider Haggard's literary work forms an excellent introduction to the real purpose of this book, since it provides a wealth of material illustrating the symbolism of the anima and its problems. Admittedly, She is only a flash in the pan, a beginning without continuation, for at no point does the book come down to earth. Everything remains stuck in the realm of fantasy, a symbolic anticipation. Rider Haggard was unaware of his spiritual predecessors, so did not know that he had been set a task at which the philosophical alchemists had laboured, and which the last of the Magna Opera, Goethe's Faust, could bring to fruition not in life but only after death, in the Beyond, and then only wistfully. He followed in the footsteps of the singers and poets who enchanted the age of chivalry. The romantic excursions of his German contemporary, Richard Wagner, did not pass off so harmlessly. A dangerous genius, Friedrich Nietzsche, had a finger in the pie and Zarathustra raised his voice, with no wise woman at his side as partner to the dialogue. This mighty voice emanated from a migraine-ridden bachelor, "six thousand feet beyond good and evil," who met his "Dudu and Suleika"" only in the tempests of madness and penned those confessions which so scandalized his sister that traces of them can be found only in his clinical history. This sounds neither good nor beautiful, but it is part of the business of growing up to listen to the fearful discords which real life grinds out and to include them among the images of reality. Truth and reality are assuredly no music of the spheres-they are the beauty and terror of l\ ature herself. The richest yield of all is naturally to be found in the primary material itself, that is to say in the dreams, which are not thought up or "spun'' like a yarn. They are involuntary products of nature, spontaneously expressing the psychic processes without the interference of the conscious will. But this richness reveals itself, one might say, only to him who understands the language of animals and plants. Although this is a tall order, it is not putting too great a burden on the learning capacity of an intelligent person who has a moderate amount of intuition and a healthy aversion for doctrinal opinions. Following its instinct for truth, intuition goes along with the stream of images, feels its way into them until they begin to speak and yield up their meaning. It rediscovers forgotten or choked-up paths where many have wandered in distant times and places-perhaps even one's partner in the dialogue. Picking up the "[In Nietzsche, Thus Spake Zarathustra, Part IV.]

546

BRt:XXER:

1283

"DIE AXIMA ALS SCHICKSALSPROBLE::\l DES ::\L-\XXES"

trail, he will pursue a parallel path and in this way learn the natural structure of the psyche. The author has successfully evoked in the dreamer the intuitive attitude he needs in order to follow the unconscious process of development. The "interpretation" does not adhere to any particular theory, but simply takes up the symbolic hints given by the dreams. Even though use is made of psychological concepts such as the anima, this is not a theoretical assumption, because "anima" is merely a name for a special group of typical psychic happenings that anyone can observe. In an extensive dialogue like this, interpretations can only be passing phases and tentative formulations, but they do have to prove themselves correct when taken as a whole. Only at the end of the journey will it be discovered whether they have done so, and whether one was on the right path or not. The dialectical process is always a creative adventure, and at every moment one has to stake one's very best. Only then, and with God's help, can the great work of transformation come to pass. April 1959

547

XI CIVILIZATION IN TRANSITION (related to Volume

of the Collected Works)

REPORT ON AMERICA 1 1284

Lecturer described a number of impressions he had gained on two journeys in North America.~ The psychological peculiarities of the Americans exhibit features that would be accessible to psychoanalysis, since they point to intense sexual repression. The reasons for repression are to be sought in the specifically American complex, namely, living together with lower races, more particularly the Negroes. Living together with barbarous races has a suggestive effect on the laboriously subjugated instincts of the white race and drags it down. Hence strongly developed defensive measures are necessary, which manifest themselves in the particular aspects of American culture. [An abstract, recorded by Otto Rank, of Jung's "Bericht iiber Amerika," at the Second Psychoanalytic Congress in Nuremberg, 30-31 Mar. 191 o. Abstracts of the papers read at the Congress were published in the fahrbuch fur psychoanalytische und psychopathologische Forschungen, II: 2 ( 191 o). Rank also published a briefer abstract in the Zentralblatt fur Psychoanalyse, I: 3 (Dec. 1910), 130; trans. in The Freud/jung Letters, 223F, n. 6. Also see ibid., index, s.v. Jung: "Report on America," for evidence that a report on the psychoanalytic movement in the U.S.A. had originally been planned. A MS of Jung's report has not been found.] ~[In Aug-Sept. 1909, to the Clark Conference, and in Mar. 1910, to Chicago.]

0:'\ THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE :'\EGR0 1 1285

The psychoses of 1'\egroes are the same as those of white men. In milder cases the diagnosis is difficult because one is not sure whether one is dealing with superstition. Investigation is complicated by the fact that the l'\egro does not understand what one wants of him, and besides that is ignorant [does not know his age, has no idea of time J. ~ He shows a great inability to look into his own thoughts, a phenomenon that is analogous to resistance among our patients. Little is said of hallucinations, and equally little of delusional ideas and dreams.- The Negro is extraordinarily religious: his concepts of God and Christ are ,路ery concrete. The lecturer has pointed out on an earlier occasion 3 how certain qualities of the .-\mericans (for instance, their self-control) may be explained by their living together with the (uncontrolled) Negroes. In the same way this li\'ing together also exerts an influence on the Negro. For him the white man is pictured as an ideal: in his religion Christ is always a white man. He himself would like to he white or to ha\'e white children; con\'ersely, he is persecuted by white men. In the dream examples given by the lecturer, the wish or the task of the Negro to adapt himself to the white man appears very frequently. One is struck by the large number of sacrificial symbols that occur in the dreams, just as the lecturer has mentioned in his book Wandlungen und S_rmbole der Libido. 4 This is yet another indication that such symbols are not only Christian but have their origin in a biological necessity. [Abstract of a lecture to the Zurich Psychoanalytic Society on 22 Nov. 1912, published in the lnternationale Zeitschrift fur iirztliche Psychoanalyse, I:r (1913), 115 (Bulletin section). See The Freud!]ung Letters, 323}, n. 3路 For Jung's later views on the influence of Negroes and American Indians on American behaviour, see "~1ind and Earth" and "The Complications of American Psychology" ( C.W., vol. r o). A MS of the present lecture has not been discO\路ered.J 2 [So bracketed in the abstract.] 3 [Not traced; perhaps an earlier lecture to the Society, but cf. the preceding "Report on America."] 1 [Neither this work (trans. by Hinkle, Psychology of the Unconscious) nor its revision, C.W .. vol. 5. contains reference to sacrificial symbols in the dreams of Negroes. Concerning the dreams of psychotic Negroes otherwise, see C.W .. vol. 6, par. 747, and C.W., \路ol. 5, par. 154.] 1

552

A RADIO TALK IN l\1UNICH 1 1286

12 87

Your question is not so easy to answer. My interest in these matters was not the result of a primary interest in Chinese philosophy, from a study of which, it might be supposed, I had learnt all sorts of valuable things for my psychology. On the contrary, Chinese thought was yery alien to me to begin with. I owe my relations to China and to Richard Wilhelm simply and solely to certain psychological discoYeries. In the first place, it was the discovery of the collective unconscious, that is to say, of impersonal psychic processes, that aroused my interest in primitive and Oriental psychology. Among these impersonal psychic processes there are quite a number which seem absolutely strange and incomprehensible and cannot be brought into connection with any of the historical symbols known to us, but for which we can find plenty of unquestionable analogies in the psychologies of the Orient. Thus a whole group or layer of impersonal contents can only be understood in terms of the psychology of primitives, while others have their nearest analogies in India or China. It had previously been supposed that mythological symbols were disseminated by migration. But I have found that the occurrence of the same symbols in different countries and continents does not depend on migration, but rather on the spontaneous revival of the same contents. Years of observing such processes has convinced me that-for the present at least-the unconscious psyche of Europeans shows a distinct tendency to produce contents that have their nearest analogies in the older Chinese philosophy and the later Tantric philosophy. This prompted me to submit my observations to the eminent sinologist Richard \\'ilhelm, who thereupon confirmed the existence of some astonishing parallels. The fruit of our collaboration is the recently published book called The Secret of the Golden Flower.~ These parallels bear out a conjecture I ha\Âˇe long held, 1

[Unpublished; from a :.'\1S in J ung's hand, dated 19 Jan. 1930. The background of Jung's remarks could not be ascertained.] 2 [Das Geheimnis der goldenen Bliite (late 1929); trans. by Cary F. Baynes, The Secret of the Golden Flower ( 1931 ; revised edn., 1962). See Jung's commentary, C.W., val. 13, and his memorial address for Wilhelm (who died 1 :.'\far. 1930), C.W., val. 15.]

553

XI. CIVILIZATION IN TRA); SIT!O);

that our psychic situation is now being influenced by an irruption of the Oriental spirit, and that this is a factor to be reckoned with. What is going on is analogous to the psychic change that could be observed in Rome during the first century of our era. As soon as the Romans, beginning with the campaigns of Pompey, made themselves the political masters of Asia ~1inor, Rome became inundated with Hellenistic-Asiatic syncretism. The cults of Attis, Cybele, Isis, and the 1\Iagna .r-.Iater spread throughout the Roman Empire. l\Iithras conquered Roman officialdom and the entire army, until all these cults were overthrown by Christianity. I do not know how much the spiritual and political decline of Spain and Portugal had to do with their conquest of the primitive South American continent, but the fact remains that the two countries which first established their rule in East Asia, namely Holland and England, were also the first to be thoroughly infected with theosophy. It seems to be a psychological law that though the conquerer may conquer a country physically, he will secretly absorb its spirit. Today the old China has succumbed to the West, and my purely empirical findings show that the Chinese spirit is making itself dearly perceptible in the European unconscious. You will understand that this statement is no more for me than a working hypothesis, but one which can claim a considerable degree of probability in view of the historical analogies.

* My journey to Africa arose from the same need that had taken 3

1288

me to :\ew ..\Iexico 4 the year before. I wanted to get to know the psychic life of primitives at first hand. The reason for this is the aforementioned fact that certain contents of the collective unconscious are very closely connected with primiti\Âˇe psychology. Our civilized consciousness is very different from that of primitives, but deep down in our psyche there is a thick layer of primitive processes which, as I have said, are closely related to processes that can still be found on the surface of the primitive's daily life. Perhaps I can best illustrate this difference by means of an example. When I ask an employee to deli\Âˇer a letter to a certain address, I simply say to him: "Please take this letter to ..\1r. X." In .-\frica I lived for a time with a very primitive tribe, the Elgonyis, who inhabit the primeval forests of ..\fount Elgon, in East Africa, and are still partly 3

(In 1925; see .\femories. Dreams, Reflections, ch. IX, iii.] [In 1924-25; ibid., ch. IX, ii]

554

A RADIO TALK IN MCNICH

1 289

troglodytes. One day I wanted to send some letters. The nearest white men were some engineers who were working at the terminus of a branch line of the Uganda raihvay, two and a half days' journey away. In order to reach them, I needed a runner, and at my request the chief put a man at my disposal. I gave him a bundle of letters, telling him in Swahili (which he understood) to take the letters to the wh:te bwanas. 1'\aturally, everybody within a radius of a hundred miles would know where to find them, for news travels fast in Africa. But after recei,Âˇing my order, the man remained standing before me as though struck dumb and did not stir from the spot. I thought he was waiting for baksheesh in the form of cigarettes, and gave him a handful, but he stood there as dumb and stiff as before. I had no idea what this meant, and, looking round me in perplexity, my eye fell on my safari headman Ibrahim, a long thin Somali, who, squatting on the ground, was watching the scene, grinning. In his frightful English he said to me: "You no do it like so, Bwana, but like so-'' And he sprang up, seized his rhinoceros whip, cracked it through the air a couple of times in front of the runner, then gripped him by the shoulders, and with shouts and gesticulations delivered himself of the following peroration: "Here, the great bwana :\I'zee, the wise old man, gives you letters. See, you hold them in your hand. But you must put them in a deft stick. Ho boys"-this to my servants-"bring a cleft stick, give it to this pagan. Hold it in your hand so-put the letters in the cleft here-bind it tight with grass-so-and now hold it high, so that all will see you are the runner of the great bwana. And now go to the bwanas at the waterfall and seek one till you find him, and then go to him and say to him: 'The great bwana M'zee has given me letters, they are in my stick here, take them!' And the white bwana will say: 'It is well.' Then you can return home. And now run, but so-" and Ibrahim began running with upraised whip-"so must you run and run, until you come to the place where the little houses go on wheels. Run, run, you dog, run like hell!'' The runner's face had gradually lit up as though witnessing a great revelation. Grinning all mÂˇer, he raised his stick and hurtled away from us, as though shot from a cannon, Ibrahim close behind him with cracking whip and a flood of curses. The man ran 74 miles in 36 hours \vithout stopping. Ibrahim had succeeded, with an enormous expenditure of mime and words, in putting the man into the mood of the runner, hypnotizing him into it. so to speak. This Âˇwas necessary because a mere

555

XI. CIVILIZATION IN TRANSITIO:\'

1290

1 29 1

order from me could not conjure up a single movement. Here you see the c hieÂŁ difference between primitive and ci\Âˇilized psychology: with us a word is enough to release an accumulation of forces, but with primitives an elaborate pantomime is needed, with all manner of embellishments which are calculated to put the man into the right mood for acting. If these primitive vestiges still exist in us-and they do-you can imagine how much there is in us civilized people that cannot catch up with the accelerated tempo of our daily life, gradually producing a split and a counter-will that sometimes takes a culturally destructive form. That this really is so, is clearly shown by the events of the last few decades. Katurally, the purpose of my travels was not to investigate only the differences, but also the similarities between the civilized and the primitive mind. Here there are many points of connection. For instance, in dreams we think in very much the same way as the primitive thinks consciously. With primitives, waking life and dream life are less divided than with us-so little, in fact, that it is often difficult to find out whether what a primitive tells you was real or a dream. Everything that we reject as mere fantasy because it comes from the unconscious is of extraordinary importance for the primitive, perhaps more important than the evidence of his senses. He values the products of the unconscious-dreams, visions, fantasies, and so on-quite differently from us. His dreams are an extremely important source of information, and the fact that he has dreamt something is just as significant for him as what happens in reality, and sometimes very much more significant. My Somali boys, those of them that could read, had their Arabic dream books with them as their only reading matter on the journey. Ibrahim assiduously instructed me in what I ought to do if I dreamt of .\1 Khidr, the Verdant One, 5 for that was the first angel of Allah, who sometimes appeared in dreams. For primitives, certain dreams are the voice of God. They distinguish two types of dream: ordinary dreams that mean nothing, and the dreams they call the great vision. So far as I was able to judge, the "big dreams" are of a kind that we too would consider significant. The only dream that occurred while I was there-at least, the only one that was reported to me-was the dream of an old chief, in which he learnt that one of his cows had calved, and was now standing with her calf down by the river, in a particular clearing. He was too old to keep track of his many cattle that 5

[Cf. "Concerning Rebirth" (C.W.,

\'OI.

ss6

g, i), par.

250.]

A RADIO TALK IN MUNICH

pastured in the various open places in the forest, so he naturally didn't know this cow was going to calve, let alone where. But the cow and the calf were found just where he had dreamt they would be. These people are extraordinarily close to nature. Several other things happened which made it quite clear to me why they were so convinced that their dream told the truth. Part of the reason is that their dreams often fulfil the thinking function over which they still do not have full conscious control. They themselves say that the appearance of the white man in their country has had a devastating effect on the dream life of their medicine-men and chiefs. An old medicine-man told me with tears streaming down his face: "We have no dreams any more since the white man is in the land." After many talks on this subject, I finally discovered that the leading men owed their leadership chiefly to dreams that came true. Since everything is now under British control, the political leadership has been taken out of the hands of the chiefs and medicine-men. They have become superfluous, and the guiding voice of their dreams is silenced.

557

FOREWORDS TO JUXG: "SEELENPROBLEME DER GEGENWART"

First Edition (I 93 I) 1292

'293

The lectures and essays contained in this volume 1 owe their existence primarily to questions addressed to me by the public. These questions are enough in themselves to sketch a picture of the psychological problems of our time. And, like the questions, the answers have come from my personal and professional experience of the psychic life of our so remarkable era. The fundamental error persists in the public that there are definite answers, "solutions," or views which need only be uttered in order to spread the necessary light. But the most beautiful truth-as history has shown a thousand times over-is of no use at all unless it has become the innermost experience and possession of the individual. Every unequivocal, so-called "clear" answer always remains stuck in the head and seldom penetrates to the heart. The needful thing is not to know the truth but to experience it. Not to have an intellectual conception of things, but to find our way to the inner, and perhaps wordless, irrational experience-that is the great problem. Nothing is more fruitless than talking of how things must or should be, and nothing is more important than finding the way to these far-off goals. Most people know very well how things should be, but who can point the way to get there? :\.s the title of this book shows, it is concerned with problems, not solutions. The psychic endeavours of our time are still caught in the realm of the problematical; we are still looking for the essential question which, when found, is already half the solution. These essays may open the reader's eyes to our wearisome struggle with that tremendous problem, the "soul," which perhaps torments

Kusnacht-Zurich, December I930 ("Contemporary Psychic Problems.") Psychologische Abhandlungen, II I. Thirteen articles by Jung, originally published from 1925 on, and assigned to seven C.W. vols.; and one essay, "'Komplex' und Mythos," by W. M. Kranefeldt.J

1 [

558

JUNG:

"SEELENPROBLEME DER GEGENWART"

modern man in even higher degree than it did his near and distant ancestors. Second Edition (1933) 1 2 94

As only one and a half years have gone by since the appearance of the first edition, there are no reasons for essential alterations in the text. The collection of my essays therefore appears in unaltered form. And as no fundamental objections or misunderstandings that might have provided occasion for an explanatory answer have become known to me, there is no need either of a longer foreword. At any rate, the reproach of psychologism so often levelled at me would be no excuse for a long disquisition, for no fair-minded person will expect me to prefer the attitude of a metaphysician or a theologian in my own field of work. I shall never stop seeing and judging all observable psychic phenomena psychologically. Every reasonable man knows that this does not express any final and ultimate truth. Absolute assertions belong to the realm of faith-or of immodesty.

Kusnacht-Zurich, july 1932 Italian New Edition (1959) 2 12 95

This book is a collection of lectures and essays which originated in the 192o's and constitute volume III of my "Psychologische Abhandlungen." They are for the most part popular expositions of certain fundamental questions of practical psychology, which concerns itself not only with the sick but with the healthy. The latter also have "problems," the same in principle as those of the neurotic, but because practically everybody has them and knows them they are counted as "contemporary questions," while in their neurotic form they appear rather as biographical curiosa. The treatment of the neuroses has naturally confronted doctors with many questions they could not answer by medical means alone. They had to resort to an academic psychology that had never concerned itself with living human beings, or only under restrictive experimen[ll problema dell'inconscio nella psicologia moderna, trans. by Arrigo Vita and Giovanni Bollea (Turin), originally published 1942; new edn., 1959, with the present foreword, here trans. from the German original.]

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XI. CIVILIZATION IN TRANSITION

tal conditions which were a direct hindrance to the natural expression of the psyche as a whole. Since the doctors received no help from outside (with the exception of a few philosophers like C. G. Carus, Schopenhauer, Eduard von Hartmann, Nietzsche), they saw themselves compelled to build up a medical psychology of real human beings. The essays in this volume bear witness to these efforts. March 1959

s6o

FOREWORD TO ALDRICH: "THE PRL\IITIYE :\II::'\D ~\::'\D 1\IODERl'\ CIYILIZ~\ TIOJ\"'' 1 1296

The author of this book, who studied analytical psychology in Zurich a few years ago, has asked me for a few introductory words to h:s work. I accede to his request with all the more pleasure as I was not bored but decidedly delighted by reading his book. Books of this kind are often of a very dry, though learned and useful, character. There are indeed not a few of them, because, together with the discovery of a new empirical psychology, the modern scientific mind has become interested in '"'hat were formerly called "curiosites et superstitions des peuples sam路ages," a field formerly left to missionaries, traders, hunters, and geographical and ethnographical explorers. ~\ rich harvest of facts has been gleaned and gathered up in long rows of volumes even more formidable than Sir James Frazer's Golden Bough series. ~\s everywhere in the science of the nineteenth century, the collection type of method has prevailed, producing an accumulation of disconnected and undigested facts which in the long run could not fail to make a survey almost impossible. Such an ever increasing accumulation, here as well as in other sciences, has hindered the formation of judgment. It is a truism that there are never facts enough, but, on the other hand, there is only one human brain, which only too easily gets swamped by the boundless flood of material. This happens particularly to the specialist, whose mind is trained to a careful consideration of facts. But when judgment is required the mind must turn away from the impression of the facts and should lift itself to a higher le\路el from which a sun路ey becomes possible. One might almost say: as a rule the higher standpoint is not given by the specialized science but by a convergence of viewpoints from other scientific realms. [With an introduction by Bronislaw ~Ialinowski (London and New York, 1931). Aldrich's trans. of the foreword is reproduced here with minor changes. The original appears to haYe been lost. See J ung's letter to the author, j Jan. 1931, in Letters, ed. G. Adler, \路ol. 1. Charles Roberts Aldrich, who re~ sided in California, died in 1933.) 1

s6r

XI. CIVILIZATION IN TRANSITION

Thus the understanding of primitive psychology would have remained an almost insoluble task without the assistance of mythology, folklore, history, and comparative religion. Sir James Frazer's work is a splendid example of this composite method. It is rather astonishing that among the co-operating sciences psychology seems to be lacking. It was, however, not completely absent. Among the many \Vho tried to tackle the problems of the primitive mind, no one has done so without psychology. But the psychological point of view employed by each investigator was his own-just as if there were only one psychological standpoint, i.e., the author's own psychology. Seen from Tylor's point of view, animism is quite obviously his individual bias. Levy-Bruhl measures primitive facts by means of his extremely rational mind. From his standpoint it appears quite logical that the primitive mind should be an "etat prelogique." Yet the primitive is far from being illogical and is just as far from being "animistic." He is by no means that strange being from whom the civilized man is separated by a gulf that cannot be bridged. The fundamental difference between them is not a difference in mental functioning, but rather in the premises upon which the functioning is based. I 2 98 The reason why psychology has hitherto rendered so little assistance to the explorer in the vast field of primitive psychology is not so much the natural disinclination of the specialist to appeal to principles outside his particular domain as the fact that a psychology which would be really helpful simply did not exist. The psychology that is needed must be a psychology of the complex functions, i.e., a psychology that does net reduce the complexities of the mind to their hypothetical elements, which is the method of experimental or physiological psychology. The first attempt at a complex psychology was made by Freud, and his essay Totem and Taboo was one of the first direct contributions of the new psychology to the investigation of the primitive mind. It matters little that his attempt is nothing more than an application of his sexual theory, originally gleaned from pathological minds. His essay nevertheless demonstrates the possibility of a rapprochement between psychology and the problem of the primitive mind. Sometime before the work above mentioned, I undertook a similar task~ that eventually Jed me to the primiti\Âˇe mind, but with a very different method. While Freud's method consisted in the application of an already existing theory, my method was a comparative one. I have reason to believe that

I 2 97

[W and/ungen und Symbole der Libido (I 9 I 2) .]

562

ALDRICH:

1 299

"THE PRIMITIVE MIND AND MODERN CIVILIZATION"

the latter yields better results. The main reason is that our new psychology is in no way advanced enough to present a theory of the mind that would have universal application. With modesty we can claim no more than the possession of sound facts and some rules of thumb which might prove useful in the attempt to master the problem of the primitive mind. Mr. Aldrich, I observe, has made use of his studies in analytical psychology, to the advantage of his research. His sane and balanced opinions, equally distant from the Charybdis of dry empirical enumeration of facts and the Scylla of deduction from arbitrary premises, owe their vitality and colour in no small measure to a consideration of analytical psychology. I am sure that the analytical psychologist will welcome Mr. Aldrich's book as one of the most vivid and clear presentations of the primitive mind in its relation to civilized psychology. I may also express the hope that the co-operation of the psychologist will prove its usefulness to all students of primitive psychology who approach their subject from the ethnological standpoint.

PRESS C:O~D.IU:"\IQUE OX VISITIXG THE UXITED STATES 1

September 1936 The reason why I come to the United States is the fact that HarYard Uninrsity has bestowed upon me the great honour of im·iting me to its Tercentenary Celebration. Being a psychopathologist as well as psychologist, I haYe been asked to participate in a symposium about "Psychological Factors Determining Human Beha Yiour. .. ~ 130' This is not my first Yisit to the United States, though my last Yisit dates back as far as I 924. I am eagerly looking forward to obserYing the changes which the last eYentful decade has brought to public as well as to private life over here and to compare them with those of our own profoundly upset Europe. It is my sincere hope to find more common sense, more social peace, and less insanity in the United States than in the old countries. As a psychologist I am deeply interested in mental disturbances, particularly when they infect whole nations. I want to emphasize that I despise politics \vholeheartedly: thus I am neither a Bolshevik, nor a National Socialist, nor an .\nti-Semite. I am a neutral Swiss and eYen in my own country I am uninterested in politics, because I am com·inced that 99 per cent of politics are mere symptoms and anything but a cure for social evils ..\bout 50 per cent of politics is definitely obnoxious inasmuch as it poisons the utterly incompetent mind of the masses. e are on our guard against contagious diseases of the body, but we are exasperatingly careless when it comes to the even more dangerous collective diseases of the mind. 1302 I make this statement in order to disillusion any attempt to claim me for any particular political party. I haYe some reason 13oo

[l'npublished typescript. \Hitten in English. While it apparently was for the :\ew York press. no instance of its publication or quotation discO\·ered. For an inten·ie,· that Jung ga,·e the .\'eu· York Times 1936) upon lea,-ing Ne\\· York, see "The 2,ooo,ooo Year Old Man,"

intended has been (4 Oct. in C. G.

]ung Speaking.] ~[For

Jung's contribution, under this title, see C.W., vol. 8. The symposium at Han·ard was actually entitled Factors Determining Human Beha1·ior.]

PRESS COMMUNIQUE ON VISITING THE UNITED STATES

for it, since my name has been repeatedly drawn into the political discussion, which is, as you best know, in a feverish condition actually. It happened chiefly on account of the fact that I am interested in the undeniable differences in national and racial psychology, which chiefly account for a series of most fatal misunderstandings and practical mistakes in international dealings as well as in internal social frictions. In a politically poisoned and overheated atmosphere the sane and dispassionate scientific discussion of such delicate, yet most important problems has become well-nigh impossible. To discuss such matters in public would be about as successful as if the director of a lunatic asylum were to set out to discuss the particular delusions of his patients in the midst of them. You know, the tragicomical thing is that they are all convinced of their normality as much as the doctor himself of his own mental balance. I 3Â°3 It will soon be thirty years since my first visit to the United States. During this time I watched the tremendous progress of the country, and I learned to appreciate also the enormous change America has undergone and is still undergoing, namely the transition from a still pioneering mood to the very different attitude of a people confined to a definite area of soil. I 304 I shall spend my time chiefly at Harvard, and after a short visit to the museums of New York I intend to sail again in the first days of October.

PSYCHOLOGY AND NATIONAL PROBLEMS 1 I

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The question of psychology and national problems with which I have been asked to deal is indeed of some topicality. It is a question, however, that would not have been asked before the World War. People in general were then not aware of any disturbance in the mental or psychic atmosphere of Europe, although the psychological critic or a philosopher of the antique style could have found enough to talk about. It was a prosperous world then and one which believed in what the eye saw and the ear heard and in what rationalism and philosophical positivism had to say. Even the rational possibility of a great war seemed, in spite of historical evidence, a far-fetched and artificial nightmare, nothing more than a theoretical scarecrow occasionally conjured up by politicians and newspapers when they had nothing else to say. One was thoroughly convinced that international, financial, commercial, and industrial relations were so tightly knit together as to exclude the mere possibility of a war. The Agadir incident2 and similar gestures seemed to be mere pranks of a psychopathic monarch, otherwise safely enmeshed in an international network of financial obligations, whose gigantic proportions were supposed to rule out any attempts of a serious military nature. Moreover the fabulous development of science, the high standard of public education in most European countries, and a public opinion organized as never before in history, allowed European humanity to believe in man's conscious achievements, in his reason, intelligence and will-power. It almost appeared [A lecture delivered in English at the Institute of Medical Psychology (The Tavistock Clinic), London, I4 Oct. 1936, when Jung had just returned from his visit to the United States (see the preceding article). H~ had written the lecture during the voyage, according to his daughter Marianne NiehusJung. The text, based on a holograph MS, has not been previously published, though similar ideas are found in an interview with Jung in the Observer (London, date undetermined), reprinted in Time, 9 Nov. I936, The Living Age (New York), Dec. 1936, and as "The Psychology of Dictatorship" in C. G. ]ung Speaking.] 2 [Arrival of a German warship at the port of Agadir, Morocco, which precipitated an international crisis in I 9 I 1.] 1

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as if man and his ideals were going to possess the earth and rule it wisely for the welfare of all peoples. I 3Â°6 The World War has shattered this dream and has crushed most of the ideals of the preceding era. In this postwar mood originated the doubt: Is everything right with the human mind? One began to question its sanity because thinking people grew more and more astonished at all the things humanity could do. The benevolent god of science that had done such marvellous things for the benefit of man had uncovered his dark face. He produced the most diabolical war machinery, including the abomination of poison gases, and human reason got more and more obscured by strange and absurd ideas. International relations turned into the most exaggerated nationalism, and the very God of the earth, the ultima ratio of all things worldly-money-developed a more and more fictitious character never dreamt of before. Not only the security of the gold standard but also that of treaties and other international arrangements, already badly shaken by the War, did not recover but became increasingly illusory. Nearly all major attempts at reduction of armaments and at stabilization of international finances went wrong. Slowly it dawned upon mankind that it was caught in one of the worst moral crises the world had ever known. I 3Â°i It is natural enough that in many quarters the doubt arose as to whether the human mind had not changed. It did not appear preposterous any more to assume that possibly there were peculiar psychological reasons for all these disquieting developments which otherwise could hardly be explained. Many people wondered what psychology would have to say about the world situation. Such questions, as a matter of fact, ha\"e often been put to me, and I must confess I always felt not only definitely uncomfortable but singularly incompetent to give a satisfactory answer. The subject is really too complicated. The predominant and immediate reasons for the crisis are factors of an economic and political nature. Inasmuch as these are activities of the human mind they should be subject to certain psychological laws. But the economic factors especially are not wholly psychological in character; they depend to a great extent on conditions that can hardly be linked up with psychology. In politics on the other hand psychology seems to prevail, but there is an ultimate factor of numbers, of sheer force and violence, that corresponds to a caveman's or an animal's psychology rather than to anything human. There is no psychology yet of such infinitely complex matters as economics or politics. It is still quite question-

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able whether there is any hope at all that psychology can be applied to things due to non-psychological factors. I don't consider myself competent to deal with the ultimate meaning of our world crisis. There are certain sides to it, however, that possess a definitely psychological aspect, offering an opportunity for comment. It seems to be within the reach of contemporary psychology to produce a certain point of view at least. Before entering upon this subject I want to say a few words about psychology in general :

/ConscioUE Psychology ;n

3laye.-s~Subconscious

Collective unconscious 3 1309

Having given you a short account of what I understand psychology consists of, let me turn now to our subject. First of all a negative statement: I exclude from psychological consideration the strictly economic and political aspect of present-day events. I am doing this because they are, partly at least, non-psychological. Whatever the psychological reasons for the Great War may have been, they transcend my psychological competence. I shall concern myself chiefly with the psychological situation brought about by the War. That there is a so-called psychological situation at all appears to be borne out by a great number of phenomena which we have to call symptoms. You call a certain phenomenon a symptom when it is obvious that it does not function as a logical means to an end but rather stands out as a mere result of chiefly causal conditions without any obvious purposiveness. Thus the yellow colour of the skin in a case of jaundice is a phenomenon with no purposiveness and we therefore call it a symptom, as contrasted with the war-paint of a Red Indian which is a purposi\Âˇe part of the war ceremonial. Or a man drives a nail into the wall and we ask him why he is doing it; if he answers that it is to hang his coat there, then what he does is purposive because it makes sense. But if he answers that it is because he happened to hold a hammer and a nail in his hands, then his action is a symptom, or at least he wants it to appear as such. 3

[J ung e\Âˇidently elaborated this schema in his lecture.]

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I3I 2

Likewise we could imagine mass organizations without the Roman salute, lictor bundles, swastikas, nco-paganism, and other paraphernalia because our political parties as well as Standard Oil or Dutch Shell can do without them. Therefore it appears to us as if such peculiarities were chiefly symptoms of a particular causal condition of the mind. On the other hand we know that symbols and ceremonies mainly occur in religious organizations where it is indeed a matter of a peculiar mental state. Of course if you are in that frame of mind you would not talk of symptomatology. On the contrary, you would call those peculiarities purposive and meaningful, because to you they appear to serve a definite end. As long as one is within a certain phenomenology one is not astonished and nobody wonders what it is all about. Such philosophical doubt only comes to the man who is outside the game. The countries where the most remarkable symptoms occur are chiefly those that have been actually at war and have therefore found themselves afterwards in a state of appalling misery and disorder. I mean particularly Russia, Germany, Austria, and Italy. No matter what the cause, misery is a definite psychological condition characterized by definite emotions, such as depression, fear, despair, insecurity, unrest, and resentments of every description. Since our empirical psychology is based entirely on the experience of individual cases, our argument must necessarily start from the individual. This leads us to the question: What will an individual do when under the strain of acute misery? There is a positive and a negative reaction to such a condition: I. Positive. A greater effort is called forth. The individual will show more strength and will-power and will try to overcome the obstacle or the cause of misery through physical, intellectual, and moral effort. It will be an entirely conscious and rational attempt supported by all the means at an individual's disposal. If the strength of one individual is not sufficient he will seek the help of others; perhaps a greater number of individuals will form some sort of organization in order to remove the cause of suffering. If such an ultimate attempt fails, or if an individual is too weak from the start to show fight, then a negative reaction takes place. II. Negative. Instead of suitable measures of defence, and instead of a concentration of energy, of efforts of the will, and of all the rational ways and methods applicable to such a condition, an emotional reaction will take place. Emotional reaction always denotes an inferior adjustment. This does not necessarily mean that s6g

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'3 '4

the adjustment is ineffectual. It merely denotes that, if the individual comes through successfully, the success is due to the fact that he has been passively carried through on the crest of an emotional wave rather than by conscious and deliberate effort of the will. In other words the success has been reached in a primitive and inferior way, in the main through a merely instinctive reaction. But more often the emotional reaction is not successful just because it is too primitive and therefore a maladjustment to a perhaps highly complicated situation. In either case the individual is passive and he is more the object of the emotion than its subject. The emotional reaction as a rule consists of depression, fear, and even panic. Emotional conditions always call up instinctive reactions. The hierarchy of human reason becomes weakened and disintegrated, leaving a door open for the intrusion of primitive instinctive forces. Emotional reaction always means regression. The first effect of regression is as a rule the reawakening of infantile methods and attitudes. People under the influence of fear and despair very often become infantile, exaggeratedly helpless and demoralized. 4 Helplessness and panic also lead to group formation, or rather to a clustering together in masses for the sake of gregarious security. Group formation under the influence of panic cannot be called an organization because it is not an attempt based on reason and will but on a fundamentally emotional movement. It is an accumulation rather than an organization. Such group formations all show unmistakable traces of infantile and archaic psychology, infantile inasmuch as they always look for the father, and archaic inasmuch as the father-image appears in a mythological setting. It seems to be unavoidable that such group formations regress to primitive tribal associations that are held together on the one hand by a chief or medicine-man, and on the other by a sort of mystical doctrine, the tribal teaching. We turn now to the question: What would a nation do when in a state of psychological misery? Since a multitude of people or a nation is nothing but an accumulation of individuals, its psychology is likewise an accumulation of individual psychologies. The individual psyche, however, is characterized by individual differences, partly congenital, partly acquired. Nearly every individual 4 [As examples of regression, presumably elaborated in the lecture, the holograph itemizes: 1. Father and mother complex. 2. Complex of infantile religion. 3Âˇ Regression to infantile criminality. 4Âˇ Regression to archetypes: schizophrenia, mystical experience, and analytical experience.]

PSYCHOLOGY AND NATIONAL PROBLEMS

shows certain specific achievements which add to his relative uniqueness. On the other hand each individual is partly similar to any other, a fact that produces the aspect of human equality. Thus individuals are like each other inasmuch as they have qualities in no way different from those of others, but unlike each other inasmuch as they develop qualities and achievements that cannot be compared with those of other people. Whatever people have in common can accumulate in a group formation, but their individual achievements never accumulate-rather they extinguish each other. Thus a large group, considered as one being, exhibits merely the traits common to all people but none of their individual achievements. The traits common to all people consist chiefly of instinctual qualities; these are of a relatively primitive character and indubitably inferior in comparison with the mental level of most of the members of the group. Thus a hundred intelligent people together make one hydrocephalus. 13 15 The psychology of masses is always inferior, even in their most idealistic enterprises. The whole of a nation never reacts like a normal modern individual, but always like a primitive group being. Therefore masses are never properly adjusted except on very primitive levels. Their reactions belong to our second category-the negative form. Man in the group is always unreasonable, irresponsible, emotional, erratic, and unreliable. Crimes the individual alone could never stand are freely committed by the group being. A society woman would rather die than appear at a dinner in an obscene dress, but if it were the fashion in the group she would not hesitate for a second to put on the most shocking monstrosity. Think for a moment of the famous cul de Paris that embellished the youth of our older generation. And men are no better. The larger an organization the lower its morality. The leader of a great religious movement, when caught out in a lie, said, "Oh! for Christ you may even lie." 13 1 6 Nations being the largest organized groups are from a psychological point of view clumsy, stupid, and amoral monsters like those huge saurians with an incredibly small brain. They are inaccessible to reasonable argument, they are suggestible like hysterical patients, they are childish and moody, helpless victims of their emotions. They are caught in every swindle, called slogans, they are stupid to an amazing degree, they are greedy, reckless, and blindly violent, like a rhino suddenly aroused from sleep. They persevere in every nonsense, in every emotion and resentment, in every prejudice, far

57 1

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beyond the psychological moment, and they get ensnared by the cheapest of all obYious tricks. Most of the time they live in dreams and primiti\Âˇe illusions usually rigged out as "isms." As long as they can feed on open ground in an undisturbed way they are sleepy and harmless. But if their food gets scarce and they begin to migrate and to encroach upon neighbouring territory, they resort to violence. They are not to be convinced that human beings have evohÂˇed much better methods in many thousands of years and that these individual men believe in reason and intelligence. I 3I 7 l\Ionster groups have a natural leaning to leaders. But a leader always means a group within the nation, and such a group is more greedy and eats more than the other groups it leads. And as all greedy monsters are jealous they get rid of their leaders and call the new condition a democracy, in which nobody rules and nobody is ruled. The logic of this procedure closely resembles the story of the man who got stranded on an uninhabited island. The first thing he did was an act of statesmanship: he called himself a democracy and consequently felt extraordinarily free and in full possession of all political rights. I 3I 8 Even a group being can't help noticing that in living in a democracy you run your head against remarkably unintelligent restrictions of freedom, imposed upon each free, self-ruling citizen by an invisible, wholly legendary being called the "State." When a monster group first called itself a "democracy" it surely did not think that its former ruler, now dethroned, would turn into a ghost. Yet he did. He became the State. I 3I 9 The State is the psychological mirror-image of the democracy monster. As the nation always rises as one man, the State is just as good as one man. As a matter of fact it is quite a person, of unlimited means, more exacting than any tyrant ever was, greedy to the limit and biologically dangerous. It, the State, is not like a Roman Caesar, enslaving prisoners of war on the lower strata of the population; it squeezes its contributions out of the most vital and most gifted individuals of its domain, making slaves of them for its own wasteful devices. It does not know that energy only works when accumulated. Its energy is money. It taps all carefully prepared and studied accumulations of this energy and dissipates it so that it becomes ineffectual, thereby causing an artificial entropy. I 320 It seems that "democracy" was a suitable name only in the very youth of the State-ghost. In order to support its boundless

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ambitions two brand-new "isms" had to be invented: Socialism and Communism. They enhance its ultra-democratic character to an extraordinary degree: the man on the lonely island is now the communistic social democracy. Together with these illusions goes another helpful procedure, the hollowing out of money, which in the near future will make all savings illusory and, along with cultural continuity, guaranteed by individual responsibility. The State takes over responsibility and enslaves every individual for its own ridiculous schemes. All this is done by what one calls inflation, devaluation, and, most recently, "dilution," which you should not mix up with the unpopular term "inflation." Dilution is now the right word and only idiots can't see the striking difference between this concept and inflation. Money value is fast becoming a fiction guaranteed by the State. Money becomes paper and everybody convinces everybody else that the little scraps are worth something because the State says so. I am by no means sure that what l am saying is not fictitious too. I don't know exactly what has gone wrong, but I have a strong and most uncomfortable feeling that something has gone wrong and that it is even getting worse. I am also certain that I am not the only one to experience such a queer feeling. There must be hundreds of people who have lost their confidence in the direction in which things are apparently moving. As group beings we are all befogged in the same way, but as individuals we might just as well apply as much of our psychiatric knowledge as seems to befit the peculiar symptomatology of our bewildering epoch. As I mentioned at the beginning, we find the symptoms chiefly in those nations that have been mangled the most by the war beast. There is for instance the German case. As far back as I g I 8 I published a paper5 in which I called the attention of my contemporaries to an astounding development in the German edition of the collective unconscious. I had caught hold of certain collective dreams of Germans which convinced me that they portrayed the beginning of a national regression analogous to the regression of a frightened and helpless individual, becoming first infantile and then primitive or archaic. I saw Nietzsche's "blond beast" looming up, with all that it implies. I felt sure that Christianity would be challenged and that the Jews would be taken to account. I therefore tried to start the discussion in order to forestall the inevitable violence of the unconscious outburst of which I was afraid-though not 5 [Cf. "The Role of the Unconscious" (C.W., vol. 10), pars. 17ff.]

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r 325

enough, as subsequent events have unfortunately shown only too clearly. I don't need to say that I was not heard at all. The fog of war-psychology was just too dense. Germany was the first country to experience the miracles worked by democracy's ghost, the State. She saw her money becoming elastic and expanding to astronomical proportions and then evaporating altogether. She experienced all in one heap what the ghosts of other democracies are trying to do to us in a sort of slowmotion picture, probably hoping that nobody understands the eyewash. Germany got it right in the neck and there was no joke about it. The whole educated middle class was utterly ruined, but the State was on top, putting on more and more of the "-istic" rouge as war-paint. The country was in a condition of extreme misery and insecurity, and waves of panic swept over the population. In an individual case these are the symptoms of an oncoming outburst. Any such outburst would bring up archaic material, archetypes that join forces with the individual as well as with the people. There is some teleology about this: it creates strength where there was weakness, conviction instead of doubt, courage instead of fear. But the energy needed to bring about such a transformation is taken away from many old values and the success gained is paid for dearly. Such an outburst is always a regression into history and it always means a lowering of the level of civilization. Through Communism in Russia, through National Socialism in Germany, through Fascism in Italy, the State became all-powerful and claimed its slaves body and soul. Democracy became its own mirror-image, its own ghost, while the ghost became appallingly real, an all-embracing mystical presence and personality that usurped the throne a pious theocratic Christianity had hoped God would take. The old totalitarian claim of the Civitas Dei is now voiced by the State: one sheep as good as another and the whole herd crowded together, guarded by plain-clothed and uniformed wolf-dogs, utterly deprived of all the rights which the man on the island who called himself a democracy had dreamt of. There are no rights left, only duties. Every source of energy, industry, commerce, money, even private enterprise, is sucked up into the new slave-owner, the State. And a new miracle happened. Out of nowhere certain men came, and each of them said like Louis XIV, "L'etat c'est moi." They are the new leaders. The State has proved its personal reality by incarnating itself in men that came from Galilee, inconspicuous 574

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132 6

1 32

nobodies previously, but equipped with the great spirit voice that cowed the people into soundless obedience. They are like Roman Caesars, usurpers of empires and kingdoms, and like those incarnations of a previously invisible deity devoutly invoked and believed in by everybody. They are the State that has superseded the medieval theocracy. This process of incarnation is particularly drastic in Hitler's case. Hitler himself as an ordinary person is a shy and friendly man with artistic tastes and gifts. As a mere man he is inoffensive and modest, and has nice eyes. But he comes from Braunau, a little town that has already produced two famous mediums-the Schneider brothers. (Harry Price has written a book about one of them. 6 ) Hitler is presumably the third and the most efficient medium from Braunau. When the State-spirit speaks through him, he sends forth a voice of thunder and his word is so powerful that it sweeps together crowds of millions like fallen autumn leaves. There is obviously no power left in the world and particularly no State-loving "-ism" which is capable of resisting this incredible force. Of course you will say, as everybody does, "One must be a German to understand such miracles." Yes, this is just as true as that you must be an Italian to understand the mythology of the Fascia, or a Russian to appreciate the charms of Stalin's paternal regime. Of course you can't understand those funny foreigners, Sir Oswald Mosley and Colonel de la Rocque' being still babes in arms. But if you carefully study what President Roosevelt is up to and what the famous N.R.A. 8 meant to the world of American commerce and industry, then you get a certain idea of how near the great State in America is to becoming Roosevelt's incarnation. Roosevelt is the stuff all right, only the circumstances are not bad enough. Great Britain seems to be pretty conservative, yet you have a taxation which makes the great estates uninhabitable. That is (Cf. Price, An Account of Some Further Experiments with Willy Schneider (1925), The Phenomena of Rudi Schneider (1926), and other books on these Austrian mediums.] 7 [Mosley founded the British Union of Fascists ("Biackshirts") in 1932. Col. Fran~ois de la Rocque was leader of the French reactionary group "Croix de Feu.") '[National Recovery Administration, established to administer the National Industrial Recovery Act (13 June 1933), recognizing a "national emergency" and vesting in the President (F. D. Roosevelt) authority to approve codes of fair competition for various trades and industries, regulate wages, hours of labour, etc.]

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exactly how things began in Italy. You have devalued your money, this is the second step. You could not stop the boastful march of Roman legions through the bottleneck of Suez, and Sir Samuel 9 meekly and wisely took all the air out of that magnificent gesture of a proud British fleet adorning the entrance to Italy's triumph. This was the third step. England comes perhaps so late into the paradise of a new age that she arrives there with many old-world nlues well preserved by sheer lack of interest. Being Swiss I heartily sympathize with this attitude. Knowing of nothing that would be better, we hang on to the rear of events and muddle along as we have been used to do for six hundred years. \\'e can't imagine our dictator yet, but already an unfortunate majority believes in the mighty ghost to whom we have sacrificed all our railways and the gold standard on top of that. I 32 8 The incarnation of the State-ghost is no mean affair. It competes with famous historical parallels; it even challenges them. Just as Christianity had a cross to symbolize its essential teaching, so Hitler has a swastika, a symbol as old and widespread as the cross. And just as it was a star over Bethlehem that announced the incarnation of God, so Russia has a red star, and instead of the Dove and the Lamb a hammer and sickle, and instead of the sacred body a place of pilgrimage with the mummy of the first witness. Even as Christianity challenged the Roman Imperium, enthroned ambitious Roman bishops as Pontifices Romani, and perpetuated the great Empire in the theocracy of the Church and the Holy Roman Empire, so the Duce has produced once more all the stage scenery of the Imperium which will soon reach from Ethiopia to the Pillars of Hercules as of old. I 329 Again it is Germany that gives us some notion of the underlying archetypal symbolism brought up by the eruption of the collective unconscious. Hitler's picture has been erected upon Christian altars. There are people 'vho confess on their tombstones that they died in peace since their eyes had beheld not the Lord but the Fiihrer. The onslaught on Christianity is obvious; it would not even need corroboration through a neo-pagan movement incorporating three million people. This movement can only be compared with the archetypal material exhibited by a case of paranoid schizophrenia. You find in nee-paganism the most beautiful Wotanistic symbolism, Indogermanic speculation, and so on. In North Germany there is 9 [Sir Samuel Hoare, later Viscount Templewood ( 1 88o-I 959), British foreign secretary in 1935, when he sought to appease Italy in its conquest of Ethiopia.]

PSYCHOLOGY Al\'D NATIONAL PROBLEMS

a sect that worships Christ in the form of a rider on a white horse. 10 It does not go as far as collective hallucinations, though the waves of enthusiasm and even ecstasy are running high. I 33Â° Nations in a condition of collective misery behave like neurotic or even psychotic individuals. First they get dissociated or disintegrated, then they pass into a state of confusion and disorientation. As it is not a question of psychotic disintegration in an individual case, the confusion affects mainly the conscious and subconscious layers but does not touch the fundamental instinctual structure of the mind, the collective unconscious. On the contrary, the confusion in the top layers produces a compensatory reaction in the collective unconscious, consisting of a peculiar personality surrogate, an archaic personality equipped with superior instinctive forces. This new constellation is at first completely unconscious, but as it is activated it becomes perceptible in the form of a projection. It is usually the doctor treating a patient who unwittingly assumes the role of the projected figure. The mechanism of this projection is the transference. By transference the doctor appears in the guise of the father, for instance, as that personality who symbolizes superior power and intelligence, a guarantee of security and a protection against overwhelming dangers. So long as the disintegration has not reached the deeper layers, the transference will not produce more than the projection of the father-image. But once the confusion has stirred up these unknown depths, the projection becomes more collective and takes on mythological forms. In this case the doctor appears as a sort of sorcerer or saviour. \Vith actively religious persons the doctor would be superseded by an activated image of Christ or by that of an invisible divine presence. I 33 I Mystical literature abounds in descriptions of such experiences. You also find detailed records in William James' Varieties of Religious Experience. But if you observe the dreams of such patients you will find peculiar symbolic images, often long before the patients themselves become conscious of any so-called mystical experiences. These images always show a specific pattern: they are circular or square, or like a cross or a star, or are composites of such elements. The technical term I use for such figures is the mandala, the Sanskrit word for "circle. " 11 The corresponding medieval Latin term is the circulus quadratus or rosa. In Hindu literature you ln [Cf. "Wotan" (C.W., vol. IO), par. 373.) [Cf. "A Study in the Process of Individuation" and "Concerning Mandala Symbolism" (C.W., vol. g, i).)

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also find the terms padma (lotus) and chakra, meaning the flowerlike centres of different localizations of consciousness. 12 '332 Because of its circular form the mandala expresses roundness, that is, completeness or integration. In Tantrism and Lamaism it is used as an instrument of concentration and as a means of uniting the individual consciousness, the human ego-personality, with the superior divine personality of the non-ego, i.e., of the unconscious. Mandalas often have the character of rotating figures. One such figure is the swastika. We may therefore interpret it as a projection of an unconscious collective attempt at the formation of a compensatory unified personality. This unconscious attempt plays a great role in the general personification of the State. It gives it its ghostlike quality and bestows upon it the faculty of incarnating itself in a human personality. The almost personal authority and apparent efficiency of the State are, in a sense, nothing else than the unconscious constellation of a superior instinctual personality which compensates the obvious inefficiency of the conscious ego-personality. '333 When Nietzsche wrote his prophetic masterpiece, Thus Spake Zarathustra, he certainly had not the faintest notion that the superman he had created out of his personal misery and inefficiency would become a prophetic anticipation of a Fuhrer or Duce. Hitler and Mussolini are more or less ordinary human beings, but ones who, curiously enough, assume that they themselves know what to do in a situation which practically nobody understands. They seem to have the superhuman courage or the equally superhuman recklessness to shoulder a responsibility which apparently nobody else is willing or able to carry. Only a superman could be entrusted with faculties that are equal to the difficulties of the actual situation. But we know that mystical experience as well as identification with an archetypal figure lend almost superhuman force to the ordinary man. Not in vain do the Germans call their Fuhrer ''our Joan of Arc." He is very much the character that is open to unconscious influences. I am told that Hitler locked himself in his room for three days and nights when his whole staff beseeched him not to leave the League of Nations. When he appeared again he said without any explantion, "Gentlemen, Germany must leave the League." This story sounds as if German politics were not made but revealed. 1334 Hitler's unconscious seems to be female. Mussolini's Latin and very masculine temperament does not allow a comparison with Hitler. As an Italian he is imbued with Roman history, and indeed 1 2 [Cf. "The Realities of Practical Psychotherapy" (C.W., vol. 16, 2nd edn., Appendix), par. 56o. Also Arthur Avalon, The Serpent Power.]

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in every gesture he betrays his identity with the Caesar. It is most characteristic what rumour has to say about him. I am told-I don't know whether there is any truth in it or not-that not very long ago he appeared at a reception in the Roman toga and the golden laurel wreath of the Caesar, creating a panic that could only be hushed up by the most drastic measures. Even if this is a mere legend it shows beautifully how rumour interprets the Duce's role. Gossip is surely a bad thing, but I confess I always find it interesting because it is often the only means of getting information about a public figure. Gossip does not need to be true in order to be of value. Even if it gives an entirely twisted picture of a man, it clearly shows the way in which his persona, that is his public appearance, functions. The persona is never the true character; it is a composite of the individual's behaviour and of the role attributed to him by the public. 13 Most of the biography of a public figure consists of the persona's history and often of very little individual truth. Well, this is the penalty the man in the limelight has to pay! I 335 It seems as if in nearly all the countries of Europe the gulf between the right and left wing were widening, in so far as these countries are not already Fascist. It is so in Spain and it soon might be as obvious in France. Since Socialism and Communism merely enhance the attributes of democracy, i.e., of a Constitution where there is a ruler without subjects and subjects without a ruler, they only serve to hollow out the meaning of Parliament, of government, of money, and of the so-called rights of the free citizen. The only possible synthesis seems to be the eventual incarnation of the Stateghost in a superman with all his mythological paraphernalia. Recently Ramsay MacDonald made a very clear statement. Speaking of the Labour Party he literally said: "Its members are a flock without a shepherd and with a plethora of sheep-dogs in disagreement with one another about the fold in which the flock should be penned. Is it not time for Labour policy to be realistic? By its fumbling with the cardinal issues of defence and peace, it is casting doubt on the competence of democracy and playing straight into the hands of Fascism. The problems of modern life are too urgent to remain the playthings of shortsighted partisans." 14 I336 It is doubtful whether the European nations would remain for any length of time in the chaotic disorder of the childish Commu[Concerning the persona, cf. Two Essays on Analytical Psychology, C.W., vol. 7, pars. 243ff., 305ff.] 14 [Source unidentifiable. MacDonald (I 886-I 93 7) was Great Britain's first Labour prime minister, I 924, and again I 929-I 935Âˇ]

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nistic doctrine. They rather revert to type, to a state of enforced order which is nothing else than dictatorship and tyrannical oligarchy. At least this form has come to light even in sluggish Russia, where 170 million people are kept in order by a few million members of the Communist Party. In Italy it is the Fascia, and in Germany the S.S. is fast on the way to becoming something like a religious order of knights that is going to rule a colony of sixty million natives. In the history of the world there has never been a case where order was established with sweet reasonableness in a chaos. Chaos yields only to enforced order. In the dictator and his oligarchical hierarchy the State-ghost appears in the flesh. Yet such statesmen are human beings who assume power over their fellow beings, and instantly the latter feel suppressed, which they did not feel as long as they were called democrats. Of course this State slavery is just as bad as before, but now they remember they might have to say something political and are told to shut up. Then they feel as if something dreadful had happened to them. They don't realize that whatever they talked about in the democracy was just as futile as anything they might talk about now. It is true that democrats talk and socialists talk more and communists beat them all at talk. It is just that sort of thing that has led them to disintegration, and that's why in a condition of enforced order talk comes abruptly to an end. Disorder is destructive. Order is always a cage. Freedom is the prerogative of a minority and it is always based on the disadvantage of others. Switzerland, the oldest democracy in the world, calls herself a free country because no foreigner ever enjoyed a liberty to her disadvantage until America and Great Britain went off the gold standard. Since then we have felt like victims. Now we play the same trick on the other countries that hold Swiss bonds (mind you, Switzerland is the third biggest banker in Europe!) and we probably feel better for it. But are we really free? We are weak and unimportant and we try to be so; our style of life is narrow and our outlook hampered not only by ordinary hills but by veritable mountains of prejudice against anything and everybody that exceeds our size. We are locked in the cage of order and we en joy just enough air not to suffocate. We have one virtue yet: we are modest and our ambitions are small. That is why we can stick to order and why we don't believe much in talk. But our freedom is exceedingly limited-fortunately enough. It may save us from a dictator. 58o

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A~D

;-.;'ATIO;-.;'AL PROBLEMS

In continental Europe today, I am afraid it is hardly a question of whether we are going to enjoy more freedom or less. As a matter of fact things have gone so far that soon even the problem of freedom will be obsolete. The question is rather that of "to be or not to be." The dilemma is now between chaos and enforced order. Will there be civil war or not?- that is what we anxiously ask the dark Fates of Europe. I would like to quote here Miguel de U namuno, one of those Spanish liberals who undermined the traditional order in the hope of creating greater freedom. Here is his most recent confession: "Times have changed. It is not any more a question of Liberalism and Democracy, Republic or Monarchy, Socialism or Capitalism. It is a question of civilization and barbarity. Civilization is now represented in Spain by General Franco's Army.'' 15 Compulsory order seems to be preferable to the terrors of chaos, at all events the lesser of two great evils. Orders, I am afraid, have to be heard in silence. But there is a majority of people to whom it seems the most serious matter in the world when they can't talk any more. This appears to be the reason why even the most [ dictatorships are eventually talked out of existence, and why the senseless and lamentable gamble of politics is meandering its way through history-a sad comedy to the thinking mind and to the feeling heart. If we are stumbling into an era of dictators, Caesars, and incarnated States, we have accomplished a cycle of two thousand years and the serpent has again met with its own tail. Then our era will be a near replica of the first centuries A.D., when Caesar was the State and a god, and divine sacrifices were made to Caesar while the temples of the gods crumbled away. You know that thousands in those days turned their eyes away from this visible world, filled with horror and disgust, and adopted a philosophy which healed their souls. Since history repeats itself and the spiral of evolution seemingly returns to the point where it took off, there is a possibility that mankind is approaching an epoch when enough will be said about things which are never what we wish them to be, and when the question will be raised why we were ever interested in a bad comedy.

I 34 2

[The Observer (London), I I Oct. I 936, in an article written from Salamanca I936. Unamuno ( I964-I936) repudiated the Franco regime in a moving speech at Salamanca on I 2 Oct. 1 936.] 16 [Illegible in holograph.]

1 Âˇ5

3 Oct.

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What are your views on a return of the Swiss people to the simple life? The return to the simple life can be regarded as an unhoped-for piece of good fortune even though it demands considerable selfsacrifice and is not undertaken voluntarily. Thanks to the mass media and the cheap sensationalism offered by the cinema, radio, and newspapers, and thousands of amusements of all kinds, life in the recent past has rapidly been approaching a condition that was not far removed from the hectic American tempo. Indeed, in the matter of divorces, Zurich has already reached the American record. All time-saving devices, amongst which we must count easier means of communication and other conveniences, do not, paradoxically enough, save time but merely cram our time so full that we have no time for anything. Hence the breathless haste, superficiality, and nervous exhaustion with all the concomitant symptoms-craving for stimulation, impatience, irritability, vacillation, etc. Such a state may lead to all sorts of other things, but never to any mcreased culture of the mind and heart. Do you think we should turn more and more to the treasures of our culture? A.s the booming book trade in many countries shows, if the worst comes to the worst people will even turn to a good book. Unfortunately, such a decision always needs a compelling external cause. Unless driven by necessity, most people would never dream of "turning to the treasures of our culture." The delusion of steady social improvement has been dinned into them so long that they want to forget the past as quickly as possible so as not to miss the brave new world that is constantly being dangled before their eyes by unreformable world-reformers. Their neurasthenic craving 1

[Translated from "Riickkehr zum einfachen Leben," DU: Schweizerische Monatsschrift, Jhg. I, no. 3 (May 1941). An editorial note in DU states that it is a summation of Jung's reply to a questionnaire sent out by the Schweizer Feuilleton-Dienst (features service) to various eminent Swiss, on the effects of wartime conditions in Switzerland.]

RETURN TO THE SIMPLE LIFE

for the latest novelty is a sickness and not culture. The essence of culture is continuity and conservation of the past; craving for novelty produces only anti-culture and ends in barbarism. The inevitable outcome is that eventually the whole nation will yearn for the very culture which, owing to the delusion of better conditions in the future (which seldom if ever materialize), has almost (or entirely) disappeared. Unfortunately our world, or perhaps the moral structure of man, is so constituted that no progress and no improvement are consistently good, since sooner or later the corresponding misuse will appear which turns the blessing into a curse. Can anyone seriously maintain that our wars are in any way "better" than those of the Romans? 1 345 The craze for mass organization wrenches everyone out of his private world into the deafening tumult of the market-place, making him an unconscious, meaningless particle in the mass and the helpless prey of every kind of suggestion. The never failing bait is the alleged "better future," which prevents him from adapting himself to the actual present and making the best of it. He no longer lives in the present and for the future, but-in a totally unrealistic way-already in the future, defrauded of the present and even more of the past, cut off from his roots, robbed of his continuity, and everlastingly duped by the mocking fata morgana of a "better future." A tremendous disillusionment is needed to save people from wishful thinking and bring them back to the sound bases of tradition, and to remind them of the blessings of a spiritual culture which the "age of progress" has destroyed with its nihilistic criticism. One has only to think of the spiritual devastation that has already been wrought by materialism, the invention of would-be intellectuals equipped with truly infantile arguments. It will be difficult to get rid of the kind of thinking whose very stupidity makes it so popular.

346

Do you believe that happiness is found not in material but in spiritual things? To remove the ideal from the material to the spiritual world is a tricky business, because material happiness is something tangible (if ever it is attained), and the spirit an invisible thing which it is difficult to find or to demonstrate. It is even supposed that most of what goes by the name of "spirit" is so much empty talk and a clattering of words. An attainable sausage is as a rule more illuminating than a devotional exercise; in other words, to find happiness 583

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in the spirit one must be possessed of a "spirit" to find happiness in. A life of ease and security has convinced everyone of all the material joys, and has even compelled the spirit to devise new and better ways to material welfare, but it has never produced spirit. Probably only suffering, disillusion, and self-denial do that. Anyone who can live under such stresses and still find life worth while already has spirit, or at least has some inklings of it. But at all times there are only very few who are convinced from the bottom of their hearts that material happiness is a danger to the spirit, and who are able to renounce the world for its sake. I hope, therefore, that the scourge which is now lashing Europe will bring the nations to realize that this world, which was never the best of all possible worlds in the past, will not be so in the future either. It is, as always, compounded of day and night, light and darkness, brief joys and abiding sorrows, a battleground without respite or peace, because it is nothing but the melting-pot of human desires. But the spirit is another world within this world. If it is not just a refuge for cowards, it comes only to those who suffer life in this world and accept even happiness with a gesture of polite doubt. Had the Christian teachings not been so utterly forgotten in the face of all this technological "progress," the avalanches that now threaten to engulf Europe would never have started rolling. Belief in this world leaves room neither for the spirit of Christianity nor for any other good spirit. The spirit is always hidden and safe from the world, an inviolable sanctuary for those who have forsworn, if not the world, at least their belief in it. Can there be an optimism of austerity? Instead of "optimism," I would have said an "optimum" of austerity. But if "optimism" is really meant, very much more would be required, for "austerity" is anything but enjoyable. It means real suffering, especially if it assumes acute form. You can be "optimistic" in the face of martyrdom only if you are sure of the bliss to come. But a certain minimal degree of austerity I regard as beneficial. At any rate, it is healthier than affluence, which only a very few people can enjoy without ill effects, whether physical or psychic. Of course one does not wish anything unpleasant for anybody, least of all oneself, but, in comparison with other countries, Switzerland has so much affluence to spare (however honourably earned) that we are in an excellent position to give some of it away. There is an "optimum" of austerity which it is dangerous to exceed, for

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1 35 1

too much of it does not make you good but hard and bitter. As the Swiss proverb trenchantly puts it: "Behind every rich man stands a devil, and behind every poor man two." Since "optimism" seems to have been meant, and hence an optimistic attitude towards something unpleasant, I would add that in my view it would be equally instructive to speak of a "pessimism" of austerity. Human temperaments being extremely varied, indeed contradictory, we should never forget that what is good for one man is harmful for another. One man, because of his inner weakness, needs encouragement; another, because of his inner assurance, needs the restraint of austerity. Austerity enforces simplicity, which is true happiness. But to live simply, without regret and bitterness, is a moral task which many people will find very hard.

Will turning away from material things foster the team-spirit? :\. common need naturally strengthens the team-spirit, as we can see in England at this moment. But the very existence of many moral weaklings increases the danger of selfishness. All extraordinary conditions bring men's badness as well as their goodness to light. However, since the majority of our people may he regarded as morally healthy, there is ground for hope that a common need will cause their virtues to shine more brightly. Believing as I do in the virtues and diligence of the Swiss, I am convinced that they have an absolute will to preserve their national independence and are ready to make the heaviest sacrifices. At any rate, the team-spirit in Switzerland is not undeveloped and hardly needs special strengthening. Above all, we do not have those social contrasts between a solid upper crust or party on the one hand and an anonymous mass on the other, which in other countries keep citizens apart. Class conflicts with us are mainly imported from abroad. Instead of pushing the team-spirit artificially to the fore, it seems to me more important to stress the development of the personality, since this is the real vehicle of the team. Faced with the question of what a man does, one should never forget who is doing it. If a community consists of nothing but trash, then it amounts to nothing, for a hundred imbeciles still do not add up to anything sensible. The noisy and insistent preaching of the team-spirit only causes them to forget that their contribution to society consists of nothing but their own uselessness. If I belong to an organization with I oo,ooo members it does not prove in the least that I am any good, let alone if there are millions of them.

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And if I pat myself on the back for being a member, I am merely adding to my non-value the illusion of excessive value. Since, in accordance with the laws of mass psychology, even the best man loses his value and meaning in the mass, it is doubly important for him to be in secure possession of his good qualities in order not to damage the community of which he is a member. Instead of talking so much about the team-spirit it would be more to the point to appeal to the spiritual maturity and responsibility of the individual. If a man is capable of leading a responsible life himself, then he is also conscious of his duties to the community. We Swiss believe in quality; let us therefore use our national belief for improving the value of the individual, instead of letting him become a mere drop in the ocean of the community. Selfknowledge and self-criticism are perhaps more necessary for us in Switzerland, and more important for the future, than a great herd of social irre-;ponsibles. In Switzerland we could do nothing anyway with masses welded together and controlled by iron discipline; our country is far too small. What counts with us are the virtues, the stoutheartedness and toughness of the individual who is conscious of himself. In the case of extreme necessity everyone has to do his bit in his allotted place. It is nice to hope for a helper in time of need, but self-reliance is better. The community is not anything good in itself, as it gives countless weaklings a wonderful opportunity to hide behind each other and palm off their own incompetence on their fellows. People are only too willing to expect the community to do what they themselves are incapable of doing, and they hold it responsible when they as individuals fail to fulfil their necessary obligations. Although we Swiss do undoubtedly have a fairly well-developed team-spirit, most of our attempts at community are miserable specimens. They grow on stony ground and are divided by thorny hedges. One and all suffer from the Swiss national vices of obstinacy and mistrustfulness-at least, these national qualities are called vices when people get annoyed about them, as very often happens. But from another point of view they could almost be extolled as virtues. It is quite impossible to say how much of our political, intellectual, and moral independence of the powerful world around us we owe to these unpleasant qualities. Fortunately-! am almost inclined to say-their roots penetrate into the deepest recesses of every Swiss heart. We are not easily fooled. How many poisonous infections, how many fantastic ideas may we not have avoided in the course

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of the centuries thanks to these qualities! The fact that we are in some respects a hundred years behind the times, and that many reforms are desperately overdue, is the price we have to pay for such useful national failings. 1 354 Hence I expect more from the Swiss national character than from an artifically fostered team-spirit, because it has deeper roots in our native soil than an enthusiasm which wanes with the words that conjure it up. It is all very fine to be swept along on a tide of enthusiasm, but one cannot enthuse indefinitely. Enthusiasm is an exceptional state, and human reality is made up of a thousand vulgarities. Just what these are is the decisive thing. If the ordinary Swiss makes very sure that he himself has it good and can summon up no enthusiasm whate\Âˇer for the joys of having nothing in glorious solidarity with everybody else, that is certainly unromanticworse, it is selfish, but it is sound instinct. The healthy man does not torture others-generally it is the tortured who turn into torturers. And the healthy man also has a certain amount of goodness which he is the more inclined to expend since he does not enjoy a particularly good conscience on account of his obvious selfishness. We all have a great need to he good ourselves, and occasionally we like to show it by the appropriate actions. If good can come of evil self-interest, then the two sides of human nature have cooperated. But when in a fit of enthusiasm we begin with the good, our deep-rooted selfishness remains in the background, unsatisfied and resentful, only waiting for an opportunity to take its revenge in the most atrocious way. Community at all costs, I fear, produces the flock of sheep that infallibly attracts the wolves. Man's moral endowment is of so dubious a nature that a stable condition seems possible only when every sheep is a bit of a wolf and every wolf a bit of a sheep. The truth is that a society is more secure the more the much maligned instincts can, of their own accord, start off the counterplay of good and evil. "Pure good'' and "pure evil" are both superhuman excesses. 1 355 :\!though there is naturally no need to preach self-interest, since it is omnipresent, it should not be needlessly slandered; for when the individual does not prosper neither does the whole. And when he is driven to unnatural altruism, self-interest reappears in monstrous, inhuman form-"changing shape from hour to hour, I employ my savage power" 2-for the instincts cannot be finally suppressed or eradicated. Excessive sacrifice of the individual for the 2

[Faust II, Act 5.]

XI. CIVILIZATION IN TRANSITION

sake of the community makes no sense in our case anyway, since, our country being so small, we are in no position to assert our self-interest in nationalistic form, that is, by the conquest of foreign countries. 1356 In sober scepticism as opposed to propaganda talk, in sure instinct and closeness to nature, in self-limitation grounded in self knowledge, I see more health for our Fatherland than in fervent speeches about regeneration and hysterical attempts at a reorientaÂˇ tion. Sooner or later it will be found that nothing really "new" happens in history. There could be talk of something really novel only if the unimaginable happened: if reason, humanity, and love won a lasting victory.

EPILOGUE TO JU:'\G:

"L'HO~L\IE .'\ L\ DECOUVERTE DE SO:\' A~IE"l

The fundamental concepts of my psychology have been set forth in the course of this book. Helped by the percepti\·e translation of ~1. Cahen-Salabelle, the reader will not have failed to take note that this psychology does not rest on academic postulates, but on my experiences of man, in health and in sickness. That is why it could not be confined to a study of the contents and functions of consciousne3s: it had to concern itself also with that part of the psyche we call the unconscious. Everything we say about the unconscious should be taken with a grain of salt; we have only indirect e,·idence for its existence since it is not open to direct observations; whatever conceptions we form of it are but logical deductions from its effects. These deductions possess only a hypothetical validity because it cannot be determined beforehand whether the nature of the unconscious can be adequately grasped by the conscious mind. I have always endeavoured, therefore, to find a formulation which brings together in a logical relationship the greatest possible number of obsen·ed facts, or else, on the basis of my knowledge of a given psychic state, to predict its probable future development, which is also a method for proving the correctness of a given hypothesis. :\lany a medical diagnosis, as we know, can hardly be proved right at the moment the doctor formulates it, and can be confirmed only when the disease takes its predicted course. It is in this way that my \·iews concerning the unconscious ha,·e little by little been built up. 1358 It is my conviction that the inwstigation of the psyche is the science of the future. Psychology is the youngest of the sciences and is only at the beginning of its development. It is, however,

357

[(Translated from the French by A.S.B.G.) The volume for which this was written (in the series Collection Action et Pensee. no. 1o, Geneva, 1944) contained fi\·e essays by Jung, translated. with a preface, by Roland CahenSalabelle, together with extracts from J ung's Basel Seminar ( 1934) and "Ta\'istock Lectures" (supra, pars. 1 ff.), edited by Dr. Cahen (later form of his name). Only two of the essays are among the ele,·en that composed .\I odern Man in Search of a Soul (New York and London, 1933!.]

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the science we need most. Indeed, it is becoming ever more obvious that it is not famine, not earthquakes, not microbes, not cancer but man himself who is man's greatest danger to man, for the simple reason that there is no adequate protection against psychic epidemics, which are infinitely more devastating than the worst of natural catastrophes. The supreme danger which threatens individuals as vÂˇell as whole nations is a psychic danger. Reason has proved itself completely powerless, precisely because its arguments have an effect only on the conscious mind and not on the unconscious. The greatest danger of all comes from the masses, in whom the effects of the unconscious pile up cumulatively and the reasonableness of the conscious mind is stifled. Every mass organization is a latent danger just as much as a heap of dynamite is. It lets loose effects which no man wants and no man can stop. It is therefore in the highest degree desirable that a knowledge of psychology should spread so that men can understand the source of the supreme dangers that threaten them. Not by arming to the teeth, each for itself, can the nations defend themselves in the long run from the frightful catastrophes of modern war. The heaping up of arms is itself a call to war. Rather must they recognize those psychic conditions under which the unconscious bursts the dykes of consciousness and overwhelms it. It is my hope that this book will help to throw light on this fundamental problem for mankind.

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Until a few centuries ago those regions of the world which have since been illuminated by science were shrouded in deepest darkness. Nature was still in her original state, as she had been from time immemorial. Although she had long since been bereft of gods, she had not by any means been de-psychized. Demonic spirits still haunted the earth and water, and lingered in the air and fire; witchcraft and prophecies cast their shadows over human relationships, and the mysteries of faith descended deep into the natural world. In certain flowers there could be found images of the martyrs' instruments of torture, and of Christ's blood; the clockwise spiral of the snail's shell was a proof of the existence of God; in alchemy the Virgin birth was figured in the awakening of the infans mer curialis in the womb of the earth; Christ's passion was represented by the separatio, solutio, and digestio of the arcane substance; his death and resurrection were reproduced in the processes of chemical transformation. These depicted the otherwise unimaginable transubstantiation. The secret of the baptismal water was rediscovered in the marvellous properties of the solvent par excellence, the vSwp Oeiov or aqua permanens. Christ's crucifixion was like a prefiguration of the task of natural science, for the tree of the Cross corresponded to the arbor philosophica, which in turn stood for the opus alchymicum in general. Today we can scarcely imagine this state of mind any more, and we can form no proper conception of what it meant to live in a world that was filled from above with the mysteries of God's wonder, down to the very crucible of the smelter, and was corrupted from below by devilish deception, tainted by original sin, and secretly animated by an autochthonous demon or an anima mundi-or by those "sparks of the World Soul" which sprang up 1

[Translated from a typescript, "Randglossen zur Zeitgeschichte," dated I 945, unpublished except for the last nine paragraphs (see below, par. I374, n. 5). Cf. Jung, Aufsatze zur Zeitgeschichte (I 946); trans. as Essays on Contemporary Events (I 94 7) ; its contents (in C.W.. vols. I o and 16) were published originally I 936-45.]

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as the seeds of life when the Ruach Elohim brooded on the face of the waters. One can scarcely imagine the unspeakable change that was wrought in man ·s emotional life when he took farewell from that almost wholly antique world. 1'\eyertheless, anyone \vhose childhood was filled with fantasy can feel his way back to it to a certain extent. Whether one laments or welcomes the ine,·itable disappearance of that primordial world is irrelevant. The important thing is the question that nobody e\·er asks: \\'hat happens to those figures and phantoms, those gods, demons, magicians, those messengers from heaven and monsters of the abyss, when we see that there is no mercurial serpent in the ca\"erns of the earth, that there are no dryads in the forest and no undines in the water, and that the mysteries of faith haYe shrunk to articles in a creed? Even when we have corrected an illusion, it by no means follov..·s that the psychic agency which produces illusions, and actually needs them, has been abolished. It is very doubtful whether our \vay of rectifying such illusions can be regarded as valid. If, for example, one is content to prove that there is no whale that could or would like to swallow a Jonah, and that, e\·en if it did, a man would rapidly suffocate under those conditions and could not possibly be spewed forth alive again-when we criticize in this way we are not doing justice to the myth. Indeed, such an argument is decidedly ridiculous because it takes the myth literally, and today this seems a little bit too nai\·e. ~-\lready we are beginning to see that enlightened correction of this kind is painfully beside the point. For it is one of the typical qualities of a myth to fabulate, to assert the unusual, the extraordinary, and even the impossible. In the face of this tendency, it is quite inappropriate to trot out one "s elementary-school knowledge. This sort of criticism does nothing to abolish the mythologizing factor. Only an inauthentic conception of the myth has been corrected. But its real meaning is not touched, even remotely, and the mythologizing psychic factor not at all. One has merely created a new illusion, which consists in the belief that what the myth says is not true. ~·\ny elementary-school child can see that. But no one has any idea of what the myth is really saying. It expresses psychic facts and situations, just as a normal dream does or the delusion of a schizophrenic. It describes, in figurative form, psychic facts whose existence can ne,·er be dispelled by mere explanation. \\" e have lost our superstitious fear of evil spirits and things that go bump in the night, but, instead, are seized with terror of

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people who, possessed by demons, perpetrate the frightful deeds of darkness. That the doers of such deeds think of themselves not as possessed, but as "supermen,'' does not alter the fact of their possession. I 363 The fantastic, mythological world of the ~fiddle Ages has, thanks to our so-called enlightenment, simply changed its place. It is no longer incubi, succubi, wood-nymphs, melusines, and the rest that terrify and tease mankind; man himself has taken over their role without knowing it and does the devilish work of destruction with far more effective tools than the spirits did. In the olden days men were brutal, now they are dehumanized and possessed to a degree that even the blackest ~fiddle .-\ges did not know. Then a decent and intelligent person could still-within limitsescape the devil's business, but today his very ideals drag him down into the bloody mire of his national existence. I 364 The development of natural science as a consequence of the schism in the Church continued the work of the de-deification of ~ ature, drove away the demons and with them the last remnants of the mythological view of the \vorld. The result of this process was the gradual dissolution of projections and the withdrawal of projected contents into the human psyche. Thus the rabble of spooks that were formerly outside have now transported themselves into the psyche of man, and \vhen we admire the "pure,'' i.e., depsychized, Nature we have created, \ve willy-nilly give shelter to her demons, so that with the end of the Middle A.ges an no I 9 18 the age of total blood baths, total demonization, and total dehumanization could begin. Since the days of the Children Âˇs Crusade, of the :\.nahapt:sts and the Pied Piper of Hamelin, no such psychic epidemics have been seen, especially not on a national scale. Even the torture chamber-that staggering achievement of modern times !-has been reintroduced into Europe. Everywhere Christianity has proved incapable~ of stopping the abomination, although many Christians have set their lives at stake. Finally, the invention of human s1aughterhouses-compared with which the Roman circuses of 2,000 years ago were but a piffling; prelude-is a scarcelv surpassable achievement of the neo-German spirit. I365 These facts make one think. The demonism of Nature, which man had apparently triumphed oHr, he has unwittingly swallowed "This can be disputed, since it is the Christian organizations that ha\Âˇe demonstrated their impotence. But if you identify the Church with Christianity, this distinction collapses.

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into himself and <:o become the devil's marionette. This could happen only becau~e he believed he had abolished the demons by declaring them to he superstition. He overlooked the fact that they were, at bottom, the products of certain factors in the human psyche. \\.hen these products were unreal and illusory, their sources were in no wav blocked up or rendered inoperative. On the contrary, after it became impossible for the demons to inhabit the rocks, \Voods, mountains, and ri,·ers, they used human beings as much more dangerous dwelling places. In natural objects much narrower limits "·ere drawn to their effectiveness: only occasionally did a rock succeed in hitting a hut, only rarely was it possible for a river to overflow its banks, devastate the fields, and drovm people. But a man does not notice it \vhen he is go\·erned by a demon; he puts all his skill and cunning at the sen·ice of his unconscious master, thereby heightening its power a thousandfold. I 366 This wav of looking at the matter will seem "original," or peculiar, or absurd, only to a person who has never considered where those psychic powers have gone which were embodied in the demons. l\1 uch as the achievements of science deserve our admiration, the psychic consequences of this greatest of human triumphs are equally terrible. Unfortunately, there is in this world no good thing that does not ha\·e to be paid for by an evil at least equally great. People still do not know that the greatest step forward is balanced by an equally great step back. They still hm·e no notion of what it means to liN in a de-psychi:::ed world. They believe, on the contrary, that it is a tremendous advance, \Vhich can only be profitable, for man to ha,·e conquered Nature and seized the helm, in order to steer the ship according to his will. All the gods and demons, whme physical nothingness is so easily passed off as the ''opium of the people," return to their place of origin. l\1an. and become an intoxicating poison compared with which all pre,·ious dope is child"s play. \\"hat is K ational Socialism" except a vast intoxication that has plunged Europe into indescribable catastrophe? I 367 \\"hat science has once discovered can never he undone. The ' All -i,ms that promise a "better" world are to he distrusted on principle, for this "orld only becomps diffPrent, but not better. :\Ian can, however. :o a certain extPrlt adopt a better or "·or,e attitude, onP that i, more reasonable or less. Of thP basic e\ ils of t>xistPnce. innn and outt>r, he will TH~\·er be freed. H(' \\"Ould do lwtter to realize th<lt this \\"Or!d i,; a battleground. <~nd at any time only a short span betwPen birth and death.

594

:\L\RG!:\'.-\LL-\ 0::-: CO::-:TEl\!POR.-\RY EYE::-:TS ----------

adYance of truth cannot and should not be held up. But the s;1me urge for truth that gaye birth to science should realize \\·hat progress implies. Science must recognize the as yet incalculable cata-:trophe which its ad,·ances ha\·e brought with them. The still infantile man of today has had means of destruction put into h:s hands which require an immeasurably enhanced sense of re~ponsibility, or an almost pathological anxien·, if the fatally easy abuse of their power is to be aYoided. The most dangerous things in the world are immense accumulations of human beings who are manipulated by only a few heads ..·\!ready those huge continental blocs are taking shape which, from sheer lm·e of peace and need of defence, are preparing future catastrophes. The greater the equalized masses, the more ,·iolent and calamitous their moYement! 1368 'Vhen mankind passed from an animated Kature into an exanimated Nature, it did so in the most discourteous wav: animism was held up to ridicule and reYiled as superstition. ""hen Christianity dro\'e away the old god'. it replaced them by one God. But when science de-psychized 1'\ature, it ga\·e her no other soul, merely subordinating her to human rea,on. ·cnder the dominion of Christianity the old gods continued to be feared for a long time, at least as demons. But science considered :\" ature 's soul not worth a glance. Had it been conscious of the world-shattering noHity of what it was doing, it would haYe reflected for a moment and asked itself whether the greatest caution might not be indicated in this operation, when the original condition of humanity was abolished. If yes, then a ''rite de sortie, .. a ceremonial proclamation to the gods it was about to dethrone. and a reconciliation with them, would ha\·e been necessary. That at least would haYe been an act of reYerence. But science and so-called ci,·ilized man ne\·er thought that the progress of scientific knowledge would he a ··peril of the soul" which needed forestalling by a powerful rite. This was presumed impossible, because such a ''rite de sortie" would haYe been nothing but a polite kowtowing to the demons, and it was the triumph of the Enlightenment that such thing,; as nature-spirits did not exist at all. But it was merely that \vhat one imagined such spirits to be did not exist. They themseh·e, exi"t all right, here in the human P"Yche. unperturbed by what the ignorant and the enlightened think. So much so that before our Yery eves the ''most industrious, efficient, and intelligent'' nation in Europe could fall into a state of non compos mentis and put a poorly gifted housepainter, who was neYer distinguished by anY particular intelligence but only by

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1 369

TRA~SITIO;..;

the use of the righc means of mass intoxication, quite literally on the altar of totalitarianism, othenvise reserved for a theocracy, and leaYe him there. Evidently neither knowledge nor preparation of any kind is needed for the direction of the State, and without any military training one can be a great Field ~farshal. Even intelligence blenches at the sight of it and cannot but man·el at the unprecedented "genius."' It was indeed something quite out of the ordinary when a person came along and cold-bloodedly stated that he would take over the responsibility. It was so stupefying that nobody thought of asking who was accepting the responsibility, or of taking the necessary precautions against public mischief. At all e\·ents the thing promised far too much for anyone to take serious offence. The psychopathologist is familiar with this particular ·'genius.. of irresponsible promises: it is called pseudologia phantastica, and it is considered quite a feat not to be duped by such people, especially when they exhibit in a high degree symptoms of possession, such as divinatory phenomena (hunches, thoughtreading, etc.), and fits of pathological affect (the classic frenzy of the prophets). l\othing is so infectious as affect and nothing is so disarming as the promised fulfillment of one's own selfish wishes. I do not dare to think of what might have happened to us Swiss if we had had the misfortune to be a nation of eighty millions. :\ccording to all the psychological precedents our stupidity would ha\·e been multiplied, and our morality divided, by twenty. The greater the accumulation of masses, the lower the level of intelligence and morality. And if any further proof were needed of this truth, the descent of Germany into the underworld would be an example. \Ve should not delude ourselves that we would not have succumbed too. The presence of traitors in our midst shows how easily we succumb to suggestion, e\·en without the mitigating excuse of being a nation of eighty millions. \\'hat protected us \Vas above all our smallness and the inevitable psychological consequences of this. First the distrust of the little man, \\hose one thought day and night is to ensure that the big man shall not bully or cheat him-for this, if one is small, must be expected of the big man. Hence, the more hectoring his words, the more they arouse defiance and obstinacy: "Now I certainly won't, .. says the honest citizen. \\'hether he is accused of being a misoneist or a consen·ative or a numskull has no effect on his instinctive reaction--at the moment; in the long run, however, the Swiss is so "reasonable., that he is secretly ashamed of his stolidity, his pigheadedness. his being a hundred years behind the times and

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MARGINALIA ON CO:\'TEMPORARY EVENTS

1370

1371

13 72

consequently runs the risk of involving himself after all in the tumult of "world organization," "living space," "economic blocs," or whatever the nostrums today are called. In this respect it is no mistake to be stuck in the past. It is as a rule better to postpone the future, since it is doubtful whether what comes afterwards will be so much better. Usually it is so with reservations, or not at all. Far be it from me to encourage such nasty things as envy and stinginess, but the fact is they exist and contribute to the heightening of distrust and not wanting to get "with it." Yet, like harmful animals, they have their uses. Naturally I don't want to speak in favour of the bad qualities, but I enjoy studying them just because, in a collectivity, they prove to be so much more effective than the virtues. They have the great advantage of piling up in proportion to the size of the population while the virtues have the disadvantage of extinguishing each other under the same conditions. They suffer from the same drawback as famous galleries, where the accumulated masterpieces kill each other stone dead. Virtue is jealous, but vice seeks companions (and the evil one loves large numbers, small ones he despises, and therefore occasionally overlooks them). In times of unrest such as these, we are protected by our deep roots, by tradition, which-thank God-is still alive and cherished, by love of country, by a profound conviction that no tree ever reaches up to heaven, and that the higher it grows the closer its roots approach to hell, by a taste that likes the middle, the p:ry8â&#x201A;Źv ayav ("do nothing to excess") of the Greek sages, who knew only their polis and presumably never even dreamt of a nation of eighty millions, and lastly by the aforesaid bad qualities, which we certainly don't wish to conceal. We have had enough of this from the other side of the Rhine: "The healthiest, most industrious, most efficient, and staunchest nation ''-how the fish rise to this bait! Anyone who is really convinced of his own and his nation's imperfections will not fall for the power of the superlative, the whopping lie. He knows, or should know, that the statesman who toys with unlawful measures is ultimately working for the ruin of the nation. The demand for the probity of the nation's leaders must be the fundamental principle of all politics, however humdrum, undiplomatic, unmodern, and short-sighted that may sound. Success that is obtained by bad means sooner or later ends in ruin. The history of the German Reich since I 87 I is an object lesson in this respect. But the danger that one will learn nothing from history is great. Just as ruinous, it seems to me, a"> the worship of success and the belief in superlatives is the fashionable tendency to turn man

597

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CIY1LIZ.-\ TIO::'\ I:'\ TRA::'\ 5ITIO::'\

mto a mere function of economic factors. ~Ioleschon·s celebrated dictun. ··~bn i~ ,,-hat he ears:· cannot claim to be eYen a physiologic:U truth. for :Uthough he depends on his food. he is not what this is but how he digests it. .\11 schemes for world improYement. world communications. economic spheres of influence. national alliances. etc. stand c·r fall bY the waY man deals with them. And if there is anYone who does not belieYe that enn the best idea will in aJl probabilitY be s.lbotaged bY man's notorious short-comings. bY his stupiditY. L1Ziness. unscrupulousness. egotism, etc., he c.:m safelY p.J.ck up his sr.:nistic:U tables. fyen in a system patched together out of countless compromises. and weighed down with .1ll sons d impncr:cal and seemingly unnecessary historical appendages. the State will prosper tolerably well if the majority of its citizens still possess an unatrophied sense of justice. :\"obody can deny the importance of economic conditions. but what is far more import.lm is how the public reacts to their ine,-itable ups and downs. Owr :1nd abow all external factors the ultimate decisions alw.1ys rest "-jth the human ps' che. ,\-hether one had a large or a small .. li,-i.r1g space·· matters little in comparison with whether one has a sound or a gullible p~Yche. In this respect the '·leaders,,. with sure grasp. haxe understo-:)d what i~ so crucially lacking: an unquestionable ~pirirual and moral authority. The pope or the Church could s.w theY are mch an authority. but how many people beliew· it? Xo doubt one c"Us:i;t to belieYe it. bur doesn't one always use this little word .. ought .. when one is forced to admit that one simplY d.xsn"t kno,,- how the necessary renc.edy is to be brought abo-..~t"!

I think the appeal to the religious conscience of humanity no longer arouses any respon~e worth mentioning today. The modern peddlers of poisonous imox.icants ha,·e replaced this "opium" with far more effecti,-e drJgs. XowadaYs it is science more than anything th.:n is the great power for good or ilL Science has done more than usher in a new age d unbelief: it i_, that age. ,,-hen anything is b. belled ··scientific.·- You can be quite sure that it "-ill be giHn a ,,e:come he.::.rir~; bY ewrYone who Yalues his intelligence and his intelle,·t~ul reputation. Here. then. we would haw a quite pass::ble auchori''" which h.15 giYrn proof not only of its iconoclastic ~'ut also of its pc~itiw pcwers. for .::.~1:~:t );:"lf a ce:2:ury new science has been examining under t':-:e !l;.icro5cope sc:::ething th.:n is more im·isible than the atom-the hu:~:.1n psYche-.:md wh.1t it di~coYered at first was Yery far from e:l:jO' .11'ie. If cr:e had the neces~.1TY inugination one would actually

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be shattered by these discoveries. But the psychologist today is in the same position as the physicist, who has discovered the elements of a future atomic bomb capable of turning the earth into a nova. He sees it merely as an interesting scientific problem, without realizing that the end of the world has come tangibly closer. In the case of psychology things are not quite as bad as that, but all the same it has discovered where those demons, which in earlier ages dominated nature and man's destiny, are actually domiciled, and, what is more, that they are none the worse for enlightenment. On the contrary, they are as sprightly as ever, and their activity has even extended its scope so much that they can now get their own back on all the achievements of the human mind. We know today that in the unconscious of every individual there are instinctive propensities or psychic systems charged with considerable tension. When they are helped in one way or another to break through into consciousness, and the latter has no opportunity to intercept them in higher forms, they sweep everything before them like a torrent and turn men into creatures for whom the word "beast" is still too good a name. They can then only be called "devils." To evoke such phenomena in the masses all that is needed is a few possessed persons, or only one. Possession, though old-fashioned, has by no means become obsolete; only the name has changed. Formerly they spoke of "evil spirits," now we call them "neuroses" or "unconscious complexes." Here as everywhere the name makes no difference. The fact remains that a small unconscious cause is enough to wreck a man's fate, to shatter a family, and to continue working down the generations like the curse of the Atrides. If this unconscious disposition should happen to be one which is common to the great majority of the nation, then a single one of these complex-ridden individuals, who at the same time sets himself up as a megaphone, is enough to precipitate a catastrophe. The good people, in their innocence and unconsciousness, do not know what is happening to them when they are changed overnight into a "master race" (a work of the devil, who has so often changed horse-apples into gold), and an amazed Europe is hard put to accommodate itself to the "new order" where anything so monstrous (one thinks of Maidenek 4 in relation to Eckhart, Luther, Goethe, and Kant!) is not merely a possibility but a fait accompli. 5 [Nazi concentration camp of World War II, near Lublin, Poland.] Âˇ' [Pars. I 3 75-83 were published in the Basler N achrichten, no. 486 ( 16 Nov. I 946), under the title "Zur Umerziehung des deutschen Volkes" ("On the Re-education of the German People").]

Âˇ1

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CI\1LIZATIO~

TRA~SITIO~

Countless people have asked themseh·es how it was possible for a ci,·ilized nation like Germany to fall into this hellish morass. I once wrote that Germany is the land of spiritual catastrophes. 6 If the neo-German madness proclaims that the Germans are the chosen people, and if they then, out of envious rivalr:·, persecute the Jews with whom they have certain psychological peculiarities in common :, behind every persecution there lurks a secret love, as doubt behind enr:· fanaticism), we are indeed confronted with something quite apart, a state of being "elect." For nobody can fall so low unless he has a great depth. If such a thing can happen to a man, it challenges his best and highest on the other side; that is to say, this depth corresponds to a potential height, and the blackest darkness to a hidden light. This light is certainly im·isible today, because it is blocked up in the depths of the psyche. Indeed everything has gone so desperately awr:· in Germany, and what has happened is an infernal caricature of the answer the German spirit should have given to the question put to Europe by a new age. Instead of reflecting on this question, it was taken in by that fake figure of the Superman, which the neurotically degenerate mind of Xietzsche im·ented as a compensation for his own weakness. (Kot without some excuse, however, since the Faust that made the pact ,,·ith the de,·il was his godfather.! Germany has soiled her name and her honour with the blood of the innocent and brought upon her own head the curse of election. She has aroused such hatred in the world that it is difficult to make the scales of justice balance. _-\nd yet the first to enter with the Sa\·iour into paradise was the thief. .-\nd what does ~Ieister Eckhart say? "For this reason God is willing to bear the brunt of sins and often winks at them, mostly sending them to people for whom he has prepared some high destiny. See~ Who was dearer to our Lord or more intimate with him than his apostles? Xot one of them but fell into mortal sin, and all were mortal sinners." 7 1 376 .:\"owhere are the opposites wrenched further apart than in the German. He is like a sick man who has fallen a \-ictim to his unconscious and no longer knows himself. _,,' The psychiatrist knows that certain dangerous unconscious forces can be rendered harmless. or at least held in check. if they are made conscious. that is. if the patient can assimilate them and integrate them with his personality. In so far as psychiatrists are ~~--

€ 7

:··Wotar:·· C. W .. Yol. 10 . par. 391.: :worb, trans. b~- C. de B. E\·ans. II, pp. 18f.]

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MARGINALIA ON CONTEMPORARY EVENTS

concerned with the psychic treatment of such complexes, they have to do every day with "demons," i.e., with psychic factors that display demonic features when they appear as a mass phenomenon. To be sure, a bloodless operation of this kind is successful only when a single individual is involved. If it is a whole family, the chances are ten to one against, and only a miracle can provide the remedy. But when it is a whole nation the artillery speaks the final word. If this is to be avoided one must begin with the individual-and a lamentably long-drawn-out and hopeless labour of Sisyphus this may seem. At any rate people are so impressed by the suggestive power of megaphone oratory that they are inclined to believe that this bad means-mass hypnotism-could be put to a good purpose by "inflammatory" speeches, "pungent" words, and soul-stirring sermons. Though I don't want to dismiss altogether the saying about the end justifying the means, I must emphasize that mass persuasion for the sake of the good compromises its end and aim, because at bottom it is simply a whipped-up mood whose effect peters out at the earliest opportunity. The innumerable speeches and articles on the "renewal" are futile, so much chatter that hurts nobody and bores everyone. 1 378 If the whole is to change, the individual must change himself. Goodness is an individual gift and an individual acquisition. In the form of mass suggestion it is mere intoxication, which has never yet been counted a virtue. Goodness is acquired only by the individual as his own achievement. No masses can do it for him. But evil needs masses for its genesis and continued existence. The mastermen of the S.S. are all, when segregated each by himself, indescribably small and ugly. But the good man shines like a jewel that was lost in the Sahara. The scientist knows that no epidemic can be sealed off by a cordon sanitaire unless the individual is prevented from breaking it. Nor can one hope for the cleanliness of a people unless the individual is induced to wash himself daily. Perhaps in a more enlightened era a candidate for governmental office will have to have it certified by a psychiatric commission that he is not a bearer of psychic bacilli. How much this would have spared the world had it been done before 1933! 1379 The disinfection of the upper echelons would certainly be merely a palliative, for a real cure would consist in the immunization of individuals. The snag here is that the alteration of the individual seems to be such an infinitely long and discouraging way round. It should be remembered, however, that only two other possibilities 6or

XI. CIVILIZATION IN TRANSITION

exist. First, the undoubtedly successful method of mass suggestion, which unfortunately works best only when you want to make something slide downhill or collapse. All that can be built with it are houses of cards or concentration camps or death pits. This method, therefore, is not to be recommended. Second, you can fold your hands in your lap, stick your head in the sand, and let things run on in God's or the devil's name. But it is extremely difficult and irritating to let a thing run on. If anything sensible came of it in the end, it would be like a lese-majeste of man. So this way, too, is out. 138o What then remains? Only with the individual can anything be done. The rise and spread of Christianity show that something of the kind is not altogether impossible. Even a sceptic will have to admit that Christianity has brought about a psychic change of sorts, even if only a superficial one. 8 It expelled many demons (and piled them up somewhere else), and it actually effected the dedeification of nature. If we disregard the mass conversions, its spread was due mainly to the work of one individual upon another. The individual was directly appealed to in early Christian times, and this appeal has continued down through the centuries in the ecclesiastical cure of souls. (In the case of Protestantism one has to ask oneself where, for sheer kerygrnatics, the cure of souls has got to!) Without a personal appeal there is no personal influence, which alone can change the attitude of the individual for the better. This requires the personal commitment not only of the one to be changed, but above all of the one who wants to do the changing. \\' ords and gestures influence only the man who is ready to go downhill and is merely waiting for the final push. 1381 \\rhat \ve need are a few illuminating truths, but no articles of faith. Where an intelligible truth works, it finds in faith a willing ally; for faith has always helped when thinking and understanding could not quite make the grade. Understanding is never the handmaiden of faith--on the contrary, faith completes understanding. To educate men to a faith they do not understand is doubtless a well-meant undertaking, but one runs the risk of creating an attitude that believes ever)thing it does not understand. This-it seems to me-unwittingly prepared the ground for the "genius of the Fuhrer." It is so convenient to be able to believe when one fears the effort of understanding. sIn view of the most recent events in Europe one must guard against the assumption that a Christian education has penetrated to the marrow.

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The medical name for make-believe and preaching faith is suggestion therapy. It has the disadvantage of adding something to a person, or taking it away from him, without his insight and decision. Childlike faith, when it occurs naturally, is certainly a charisma. But when "joyful faith" and "childlike trust" are instilled by religious education, they are no charisma but a gift of the ambiguous gods, because they can be manipulated only too easily and with greater effect by other "saviours" as well. Hence the lament of many Germans about the shameful misuse that was made of the best qualities of the German people, their faith, their loyalty, and their idealism. Since the Church is still the greatest institution for mass education, with nothing of comparable value to set beside it, it will probably have to consider refining its methods if it wants to appeal to the educated person. The latter is by no means a quantite negligeable, as statistics show that what he thinks and writes percolates down to the broad masses within rather less than a generation. Thus, for example, that outstandingly stupid book by Herr Buchner, Kraft und Stolf, 9 became in the course of twenty years the most-read book in the public libraries of Germany. The educated man is and remains a leader of the people, whether he knows it or not and whether he wants it or not. The people seek, despite everything, to understand. Although it was not clearly provided for in the original plan of creation that our first parents would eat of the tree of knowledge, it seems nevertheless to have happened, and since then the wheel of history cannot be turned back. The people want still more of those fruits. This is a hopeful sign, for besides stratospheric bombs and the alluring possibilities of uranium there are also, perhaps, salutary truths which instruct man on his true nature and demonstrate its dangerousness as incontestably as modern hygiene demonstrates the aetiology of typhus and virulent smallpox. At the same time, they lend renewed plausibility to an attitude which it has been the constant endeavour of all the higher religions to inculcate into humanity. [Ludwig Buchner ( 1824-99), German physician and philosopher, apostle of extreme materialism.]

.-\XS\rERS TO ").IISH).L-\R" 0::\ ADOLF HITLER 1 Eugen Kolb, Gene\·a correspondent of .Mishmar (The Daily Guardian) of Tel Axiv, wrote to Jung on 4 September 1945 for his ans\vers to the following questions. Jung replied on 14 September. H ou· do you, as a psychiatrist, judge Hitler as a "patient"? 1384

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Hitler was in my view primarily an hysteric. (Already in the first \rorld War he had been officially diagnosed as such.) More particularly he was characterized by a subform of hysteria: pseudologia phantastica. In other words he was a "pathological liar." If these people do not start out directly as deceivers, they are the sort of idealists who are alwavs in love with their own ideas and who anticipate their aims by presenting their wish-fantasies partly as easily attainable and partly as ha\·ing been attained, and who believe these obvious lies themseh·es. (Quisling, as his trial showed, was a similar case.) In order to realize their wish-fantasies no means is too bad for them, just because they believe they can thereby attain their beloved aim. They "believe'' they are doing it for the benefit of humanity, or at least of the nation or their party, and cannot under any circumstances see that their aim is invariably egoistic. Since this is a common failing, it is difficult for the la~man to recognize such cases as psychopathic. Because only a convinced person is immediately com·incing (by psychic contagion), he exercises as a rule a devastating influence on his contemporaries. Almost evervbodv is taken in bv' him. . '

How could this "psychopath" influence whole nations to such an extent? If his maniacal wish-system is a socio-political one, and if it corresponds to the pet ideas of a majority, it produces a psychic epidemic that swells like an avalanche. The majority of the German 1

[."ot published until 15 NoY. 1974, when Kolb's and Jung's letters were printed in .\fish mar (in Hebrew 1, with editorial comments, under the heading, "\\"hat Did Jung Say to 11ishmar's Correspondent in Switzerland 29 Years Ago?'' The publication was the consequence of an inquiry sent to Mishmar by the editors of the C.W., attempting to learn whether the late Eugen Kolb had published J ung's letter.]

ANSWERS TO ''1\IISHI\IAR" ON ADOLF HITLER

people were discontented and hugged feelings of revenge and resentment born of their national inferiority complex and identified themselves with the underdogs. (Hence their special hatred and enYy of the Jews, who had anticipated them in their idea of a "chosen people"!)

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Do you consider his contemporaries, who executed his plans, equally "psycho pat hie"? Suggestion works only when there is a secret wish to fulfil it. Thus Hitler was able to work on all those who compensated their inferiority complex with social aspirations and secret dreams of power. As a result he collected an army of social misfits, psYchopaths, and criminals around him, to \vhich he also belonged. But at the same time he gripped the unconscious of normal people, who are always naive and fancy themselves utterly innocent and right. The rna jority of normal people (quite apart from the I o per cent or so who are inferior) are ridiculously unconscious and naive and are open to any passing suggestion. So far as lack of adaptation is a disease, one can call a whole nation diseased. But this is normal mass psychology; it is a herd phenomenon, like panic. The more people liYe together in heaps, the stupider and more suggestible the individual becomes. If that is so, how can they be cured? Education for fuller consciousness! Prenntion of social herdformations, of proletarianization and mass-minded ness! No oneparty system! No dictatorship! Communal autonomy!

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TECHNIQUES OF ATTITUDE CHANGE CONDUCIVE TO WORLD PEACE 1 Memorandum to Unesco

1388

Psychotherapy as it is taught and practised at the C. G. Jung Institute for Analytical Psychology, Zurich, can be described as a technique for changing the mental attitude. It is a method by which not only neuroses and functional psychoses can be treated, but also all sorts of mental and moral conflicts in normal people. It consists chiefly in the integration of unconscious contents into consciousness. As the unconscious mind complements or-more accurately-compensates the conscious attitude, it becomes of considerable practical importance when the attitude of consciousness deviates to one side to such a degree that the mental balance is upset. This is the case in neuroses and psychoses. The mental and moral conflicts of nor1

[From a holograph, with typescript passages, written (in English) in 1948 in response to a request from the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (Unesco). The Second General Conference of Unesco, in Nov.-Dec. 1947, had adopted a resolution instructing the Director General to promote "enquiries into modern methods which have been developed in education, political science, philosophy and psychology for changing mental attitudes and into the social and political circumstances which favour the employment of particular techniques." Accordingly, memoranda were commissioned from individuals at specialized institutes, including the International Psychoanalytic Association, the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations, and the C. G. Jung Institute for Analytical Psychology. Mr. P. W. Martin, an official of Unesco, conducted the arrangements with the Jung Institute. Jung's memorandum, published here (with minor stylistic revisions), was later partially in corpora ted in a text prepared by Dr. J olande Jacobi on behalf of the Jung Institute, which was sent to Unesco on 23 June 1948 for discussion at the Conference on Methods of Attitude Change Conducive to International Understanding in October 1948, at Royaumont (near Paris). The Jung Institute's memorandum was not, however, included in the agenda of the Royaumont Conference. Acknowledgment is made to the Unesco Press for permission to publish this memorandum and to Mr. J. Havet, Director of the Unesco Department of Social Sciences, for his advice and assistance in 1974.)

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mal people show a disturbance of balance of a somewhat different kind: the conflicting opposites are both conscious, whereas in the neuroses the opposing half is mostly unconscious. But even with normal people the mental attitude is only partially based upon conscious and rational motives. Quite a number of-often decisivemotives remain unconscious. The unconscious mind consists of: a. Previously conscious but forgotten or repressed contents. b. Subliminal elements and combinations of elements not yet COnSCIOUS.

c. Inherited instinctual patterns, so-called archetypes determining human behaviour.

1 390

All these contents and elements form together a matrix of the conscious mind, which would not be able to function without their continuous collaboration. A dissociation between conscious and unconscious immediately causes pathological disturbances. The uncon-· scious, therefore, is a factor of the greatest biological importance. Its physiological aspect consists of the functioning of all the subcortical centres, which cannot be influenced by the will, and its psychological aspect of those dominant emotional tendencies in human nature which cannot be ruled by reason. These tendencies are exceedingly dynamic and of an ambivalent nature. If properly understood, they form a most welcome and useful support and vis a tergo to conscious convictions and decisions. If misunderstood or misdirected they paralyse and blindfold people, pushing them into a masspsychosis. It is, therefore, of vital importance in medical psychology to gain access to this reservoir of energy, and no attempt to change mental attitudes can be permanently successful without first e~tab lishing a new contact with the unconscious. Hitler's enormous psy· chological effect was based upon his highly ingenious method of playing on the well-known national inferiority complex of the Germans, of which he himself was the most outstanding example. A similar yet positive release of unconscious dynamism was the overwhelming expansicn of Christianity in the second and third centuries, and the explosive spread of Islam in the seventh century. An in~tructive example of epidemic insanity was the witch-hunting mania in Germanic countries in the fifteenth century. This was the cause of a veritable campaign of enlightenment initiated by the Papal Bull Summis desiderantes in 1484. It must be emphasized that "mental attitude" is a concept

6o7

XI. CIVILIZA TIOX IX TRAN SITIO:\'

1 39 I

which does not describe or define accurately enough what we understand by this term. The attitude our method is concerned with is not only a mental but a moral phenomenon. An attitude is governed and sustained by a dominant conscious idea accompanied by a so-called "feeling-tone,'' i.e., an emotional value, which accounts for the efficacy of the idea. The mere idea has no practical or moral effect whateYer if it is not supported by an emotional quality haYing as a rule an ethical value. ~!ore often than not a neurotic dissociation is due to the effect of an intellectual or moral idea that forms an ideal incompatible with human nature. The contrary is also true, since a dominant immoral idea suppresses the better nature of an indiYidual. In either case the attitude is determined by mental as well as moral factors. This explains why a change of attitude is by no means an easy task, since it always inYoh·es considerable moral effort. Should this be lacking, the attitude would not really be changed and the old ways would persist under the disguise of new slogans. The met hod can be described only in its general outlines: a. The patient giYes an honest account of his biography. b. He collects his dreams and other products of the unconscious and submits them to analysis. c. The analytical procedure tries to establish the context surrounding each item of the dream, etc. This is done by collecting the associations to a giYen item. This part of the work is carried out chiefly by the patient. d. The context elucidates the incomprehensible dream-text in the same way as corrupt or mutilated texts become readable with the help of philological parallels. e. In this way it is possible to establish a reading of the dreamtext. This, howe\·er, does not imply an understanding of the dream's meaning. Determination of its meaning is a matter of practice, i.e., the apparent meaning has to be related to and compared with the conscious attitude. \\"ithout such a comparison it is impossible to understand the functional meaning of the dream. f. A.s a rule the meaning of a dream is compensatory to the conscious attitude, i.e., it adds to the latter what was lacking in it. The dream is a natural attempt to redress a lack of balance, and it changes the conscious attitude to such an extent that a state of equilibrium is restored. g. The method can be applied only in indi\·idual cases and only if the indiYidual Yoluntarily submits to it. 6o8

ATTITUDE CHANGE CONDUCIVE TO WORLD PEACE

h. A change of attitude can be brought about only when there is a motive strong enough to enforce a serious submission to the method. In pathological cases it is, as a rule, the illness itself and its intolerable consequences that provide the necessary motivation. In normal cases of conflict it is strong depression, despair, or a religious problem which enables an individual to make a sustained effort to achieve an ultimate change of attitude. A provisional or experimental application of the method rarely produces the desired effect, i.e., a complete change of attitude. i. It is, however, possible that an earnest and conscientious person with a trained mind and a scientific education can acquire sufficient knowledge through a careful study of the existing literature to apply the method to himself to a certain extent. By this means he can at least obtain some understanding of its possibilities. But as the method is in essence a dialectical procedure, he will not be able to progress beyond a certain point without the help of an experienced teacher. Since the method does not involve intellectual factors only, but also feeling values and above all the important question of human relationship, the principle of collaboration becomes imperative. n 1392

1 393

The applicability and efficacy of the method described above are severely restricted to the individual. A change of attitude can be brought about this way only in the individual and through individual treatment. Moreover, one can apply this method with reasonable hope of success only to individuals endowed with a certain degree of intelligence and sound sense of morality. A marked lack of education, a low degree of intelligence and a moral defect are prohibitive. As 50 per cent of the population are below normal in one or other of these respects, the method could not have any effect on them even under ideal circumstances. Since the most intimate and delicate problems ha\Âˇe to be confronted the moment one begins to delve into the meaning of dreams, a man's attitude cannot be changed unless he takes account of the most questionable and painful aspects of his own character. One cannot, therefore, expect much from the application of such a method to a group. A change of attitude never starts with a group but only with an individual. If a number of individuals were to undergo such treatment sepa6og

XI. CIVILIZATION IN TRANSITION

rately, and-provided their motive was strong enough-were to experience a change of attitude, they could subsequently form a group, a leading minority, which might become the nucleus of a larger body of people. Their numbers could be increased a. by individual treatment, b. by suggestion through authority.

1394

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1396

The great mass of the people is led by its suggestibility. It cannot be changed in its attitude, only in its behaviour. The latter depends upon the authority of leaders whose attitude has been really changed. In this way the ideas of modern psychology have spread and in a similar way religious and all sorts of intellectual, moral, and immoral movements have gained ground. Such a development seems to be theoretically possible as long as we can be sure that the causes of human attitude are of a psychological nature and can be reached by psychological means. On the other hand we have to remember that psychology in our days is still a very young science and might be still in its cradle. We have to admit, therefore, the possibility of causal factors beyond our rational expectations. Within the above-mentioned limits a change of attitude is something that can be taken for granted. Success is not easily attainable and the method is neither infallible nor foolproof. It requires a considerable amount of education and training of physician and teacher and a very strong motive on the part of the patient or pupil. But it is also a fact that the interest of the general public in psychology had rapidly increased in spite of the marked resistance of academic authority. Psychological ideas and concepts have spread far and wide, which is irrefutable proof of real need to know more about psychology. Under these circumstances it would not he unreasonable to consider the possibility of a wider application of the said method. The first thing needed would be teachers. But here we come up against the inevitable question of motive. The motive must be a vital one and stronger than any prejudice. This is a very serious obstacle. It needs more than mere idealism-the teacher has to be absolutely convinced that his personal attitude is in need of revision, even of actual change. Nobody will condescend to this unless he feels that there really is something wrong. In view of the actual condition of the world every intelligent person is ready to admit that there is something utterly wrong with our attitude. Yet this inclusive statement rarely ever includes the individual in question, 610

ATTITUDE CHA:t\GE CONDUCIVE TO WORLD PEACE

1 397

1 398

namely, the would-be teacher. His attitude is surely right and only needs confirmation and support, but no change. It is a very long step from this conviction to the conclusion: the world is wrong and therefore I am wrong too. To pronounce such words is easy, but to feel their truth in the marrow of one's bones is a very different proposition, yet it is the sine qua non of the true teacher. In other words, it is a question of personalities, without which no method and no organization make sense. A man whose heart is not changed will not change any other's. Unfortunately the world of today is inclined to belittle and to ridicule such a simple and evident truth as this and thereby proves its own psychological immaturity, which is one of the prime causes of the present state of affairs as well as of numberless neuroses and individual conflicts. Since the Middle Ages our mental horizon has been immensely enlarged, but unfortunately in a one-sided way. The object without prevails over the condition within. We know very little of ourselves, we even hate to know more. Yet it is man that experiences the world and any experience is determined by the subject as well as by the object. Logically the subject should be just as important as the object. But actually we know infinitely less of our psyche than of external objects. This fact cannot fail to impress anybody who tries to understand the motivation of human attitudes. The unconscious of highly educated people is often well-nigh incredible in certain respects, not to mention their prejudices and their irresponsible ways of dealing-or rather not dealing-with them. Naturally they set a suggestive example to the masses with disastrous results, but they are little concerned with the hahison des clercs. Our insight and our self-education have not kept pace with the ever-expanding external horizon. On the contrary, we know in some ways less of the psyche than in the Middle Ages. It is evident that a better knowledge of man's psyche begins with a better understanding of oneself. If the method is successful it often integrates a vast amount of hitherto unconscious material into consciousness, enlarging both its range of vision and its moral responsibility. When parents know which of their unconscious tendencies and habits are injurious to their children's psyches, they will feel a moral obligation to do something about it, provided their sense of duty and their love are normally developed. The same law will operate in groups and, last but not least, in nations, that is, in the leading minorities, in so far as these consist of individuals who are conscious of certain tendencies which could seriously cn6I

XI. CIVILIZATION IN TRANSITION

1 399

1 400

1401

danger human relationships. The main danger is direct and indirect egotism, i.e., unconsciousness of the ultimate equality of our fellow men. Indirect egotism manifests itself chiefly in an abnormal altruism, which is even capable of forcing something that seems right or good to us upon our neighbour under the disguise of Christian love, humanity and mutual help. Egotism always has the character of greed, which shows itself chiefly in three ways: the power-drive, lust, and moral laziness. These three moral evils are supplemented by a fourth which is the most powerful of all-stupidity. Real intelligence is very rare and forms statistically an infinitesimal part of the average mind. Viewed from the level of a more highly qualified mind, the average intelligence is very low. Unfortunately unusual intelligence is often-as an uncommon individual quality-dearly paid for by a corresponding moral weakness or even defect, and is thus a doubtful gift of the gods. Greed is uncontrollable except when counteracted by an equally violent morality. Morality, however, if it exceeds the norm, becomes a real danger to human relationship, because it is the direct instigator of compensatory immoral behaviour and thus reveals its secret root, greed. A nation consists of the sum of its individuals, and its character corresponds to the moral average. Nobody is immune to a nationwide evil unless he is unshakably convinced of the danger of his own character being tainted by the same evil. But the immunity of the nation depends entirely upon the existence of a leading minority immune to the evil and capable of combatting the powerful suggestive effect of seemingly possible wish-fulfilments. If the leader is not absolutely immune, he will inevitably fall a victim to his own will-to-power. The accumulated greed of a nation becomes utterly uncontrollable unless counteracted by all the forces (civil and military) a government is equipped with. No suggestion works unless one is convinced of its power. Arguments are ineffectual. III

1402

As to the next step for further development of the aforesaid method we propose : a. Giving publicity to the ideas mentioned above in circles likely to influence the few who are capable of drawing their own conclusions. 6I2

ATTITUDE CHANGE CONDUCIVE TO WORLD PE.\CE

b. If there are some who share the conviction that their own attitude is really in need of revision, they should be given the opportunity to submit to individual treatment. c. Since a great deal of self-deception is to be expected as to the seriousness of one's motivations, some would soon drop out while others would need more time than was foreseen. In this case the financial allowance granted to the former would go to the latter, so that they could continue their work for as long as from six months to a year. d. As "a change of attitude" is a rather indefinite term, we must emphasize that we understand by this the change brought about through the integration of formerly unconscious contents into consciousness. Such an addition inevitably involves a change that is felt as such. The change is never neutral. It is essentially an increase of consciousness and it depends entirely upon the individual's character what form it will ultimately take. It is, when it comes to the worst, an inoculation with one's own virtue. It is a challenge to the whole man, and it must be considered a risk-the risk involved in the further development of man's consciousness. 2 2

Here a list of "books of reference'' was appended: ( 1) Attitude: Psychological Types. (2) Method: The Relations between the Ego and the Unconscious; L'Homme /a decouverte de son ame; Baynes, Mythology of the Soul; Wickes, Inner World of Childhood and Inner World of Man; Psychologie und Erziehung. ( 3) Psychology: Vber die Psychologie des Unbewussten; Psychology and Religion; Vber psychische Energetik und das Wesen der Triiume; Psychologie der Vbertragung; Jacobi, The Psychology of C. C. Jung.

THE EFFECT OF TECHl\OLOGY 1 0~ THE HUMAN PSYCHE 1403

1404

1405

The question you ask me, concerning the effect of technology on the human psyche, is not at all easy to answer, as you may well imagine. The problem is a very complicated one. Since technology consists of certain procedures invented by man, it is not something that somehow lies outside the human sphere. One may therefore conjecture that certain modes of human adaptation also exist which would meet the requirements of technology. Technological activities mostly consist in the identical repetition of rhythmical procedures. This corresponds to the basic pattern of primitive labour, which is never performed without rhythm and an accompanying chant. The primitive, that is, the man who is relatively instinctive, can put up with an extraordinary amount of monotony. There is even something fascinating about it for him. When the work is accompanied by drumming, he is able to heat himself up into an ecstasy, or else the monotony of the action makes him fall into a semi-unconscious condition, which is not so unpleasant either. The question naturally is: What is the effect of these primitive techniques on modern man, who no longer has the capacity to transport himself into semi-unconscious or ecstatic states for any length of time? In general it can be said that for modern man technology is an imbalance that begets dissatisfaction with work or with life. It estranges man from his natural versatility of action and thus allows many of his instincts to lie fallow. The result is an increased resistance to work in general. The remedy would presumably be to mo\Âˇe industry out of the towns, a four-hour day, and the rest of the time spent in agricultural work on one's own property-if such a thing could be realized. In Switzerland it might be, given time. Katurally it is different with the slum mentality of huge workerpopulations, but that is a problem in itself. [Letter, of 14 Sept. 1949, to the editors of the Zurcher Student (Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule = Federal Polytechnic Institute), published in the Nov. 1949 issue, Jhg. 27.)

THE EFFECT OF TECHNOLOGY ON THE HUMAN PSYCHE 1

4Â° 6

407

Considered on its own merits, as a legitimate human activity, technology is neither good nor bad, neither harmful nor harmless. Whether it be used for good or ill depends entirely on man's own attitude, which in turn depends on technology. The technologist has something of the same problem as the factory worker. Since he has to do mainly with mechanical factors, there is a danger of his other mental capacities atrophying. Just as an unbalanced diet is injurious to the body, any psychic imbalances have injurious effects in the long run and need compensating. In my practice I have observed how engineers, in particular, very often developed philosophical interests, and this is an uncommonly sound reaction and mode of compensation. For this reason I have always recommended the institution of Humanistic Faculties at the Federal Polytechnic, to remind students that at least such things exist, so that they can come back to them if ever they should feel a need for them in later life. Technology harbours no more dangers than any other trend in the development of human consciousness. The danger lies not in technology but in the possibilities awaiting discovery. Undoubtedly a new discovery will never be used only for the good, but will certainly be used for ill as well. Man, therefore, always runs the risk of discovering something that will destroy him if evilly used. We have come very close to this with the atom bomb. Faced with such menacing developments, one must ask oneself whether man is sufficiently equipped with reason to be able to resist the temptation to use them for destructive purposes, or whether his constitution will allow him to be swept into catastrophe. This is a question which experience alone can answer.

FOREWORD TO NEUMANN: "DEPTH PSYCHOLOGY AND A NEW ETHIC" 1 I4o8

I409

The author has asked me if I would write a foreword to the present book. I am happy to comply with this request, although it is only as an empiricist, and never as a philosopher, that I have been concerned with depth psychology, and cannot boast of ever having tried my hand at formulating ethical principles. My professional work has certainly given me plenty of opportunities to do this, since the chief causes of a neurosis are conflicts of conscience and difficult moral problems that require an answer. The psychotherapist thus finds himself in an extremely awkward situation. Having learnt by long and often painful experience the relative ineffectiveness of trying to inculcate moral precepts, he has to abandon all admonitions and exhortations that begin with "ought" and "must." In addition, with increasing experience and knowledge of psychic relationships, the conviction dwindles away that he knows exactly what is good and bad in every individual case. His vis-a-vis, the other person, is indeed "another," a profound stranger, if ever the discussion should penetrate to the core of the problem, namely, the unique individuality of the patient. What is then meant by "good"? Good for him? Good for me? Good for his relatives? Good for society? Our judgment becomes so hopelessly caught in a tangle of subsidiary considerations and relationships that, unless circumstances compel us to cut through the Gordian knot, we would do better to leave it alone, or content ourselves with offering the sufferer what modest help we can in unravelling the threads. For these reasons it is particularly difficult for the medical psychologist to formulate any ethical principles. I do not mean that such a task does not exist, or that its solution is absolutely impossible. I fully recognize that there is an urgent need today to formulate [Written in I949 for a proposed English edition of Erich Neumann, Tiefenpsychologie und neue Ethik (Zurich, I 949). An English edition was published only in I 969 (New York and London), trans. by Eugene Rolfe, with the present trans. of the fore\\Âˇord by R.F.C. Hull (here slightly revised). For Jung's appraisal of the book when it was published in German, see Letters, ed. G. Adler, vol. 1, to Neumann, Dec. 1948, and to J. Fierz, 13 Jan. 49Âˇ] 1

616

NEUMANN:

1410

141

1412

"DEPTH PSYCHOLOGY AND A NEW ETHIC"

the ethical problem anew, for, as the author aptly points out, an entirely new situation has arisen since modern psychology broadened its scope by the study of unconscious processes. Concurrently with this, things have happened in Europe, and still go on happening, that far surpass the horrors of imperial Rome or the French reign of terror; things that have ruthlessly revealed the weakness of our whole system of ethics. Moral principles that seem clear and unequivocal from the standpoint of ego-consciousness lose their power of conviction, and hence their applicability, when we consider the compensatory significance of the shadow in the light of ethical responsibility. No man endowed with any ethical sense can avoid doing this. Only a man who is repressed or morally stupid will be able to neglect this task, though he will not be able to get rid of the evil consequences of such behaviour. (In this respect the author utters some heartening truths.) The tremendous revolution of values that has been brought about by the discovery of the unconscious, with repercussions still to come, is scarcely understood today or even noticed. The psychological foundation of all philosophical assertions, for example, is still assiduously overlooked or deliberately obscured, so much so that certain modern philosophies unconsciously lay themselves open to psychological attack. The same is true of ethics. It is, understandably enough, the medical psychologist who is the first to be impressed by the shortcomings or evils of the epoch, for he is the first to have to deal with its casualities. The treatment of neurosis is not, in the last resort, a technical problem, but a moral one. There are, admittedly, interim solutions that are technical, but they never result in the kind of ethical attitude that could be described as a real cure. Although every act of conscious realization is at least a step forward on the road to individuation, to the "making whole" of the individual, the integration of the personality is unthinkable without the responsible, and that means moral, relation of the parts to one another, just as the constitution of a state is impossible without mutual relations between its members. The ethical problem thus poses itself, and it is primarily the task of the psychologist to provide an answer or to help his patient find one. Often this work is wearisome and difficult, because it cannot be accomplished by intellectual shortcuts or moral recipes, but only by careful observation of the inner and outer conditions. Patience and time are needed for the gradual crystallization of a goal and

XI. CMLIZATION IN TRANSITION

a direction for which the patient can take responsibility. The analyst learns that ethical problems are always intensely individual and can convince himself again and again that the collective rules of conduct offer at most provisional solutions, but never lead to those crucial decisions which are the turning-points in a man's life. As the author rightly says: "The diversity and complexity of the situation make it impossible for us to lay down any theoretical rule of ethical behaviour." 14 1 3 The formulation of ethical rules is not only difficult but actually impossible because one can hardly think of a single rule that would not have to be reversed under certain conditions. Even the simple proposition "Conscious realization is good" is only of limited validity, since we not infrequently meet with situations in which conscious realization would have the worst possible consequences. I have therefore made it a rule to take the "old ethic" as binding only so long as there is no evidence of its injurious effects. But if dangerous consequences threaten, one is then faced with a problem of the first order, 2 the solution of which challenges the personality to the limit and demands the maximum of attention, patience and time. The solution, in my experience, is always individual and is only subjectively valid. In such a situation, all those reflections which the author passes under review have to be considered very seriously. Despite their subjective nature, they cannot very well be formulated except as collective concepts. But since these reflections constantly recur in practice-for the integration of unconscious contents continually poses such questions-it necessarily follows that, in spite of individual variation, they will exhibit certain regular features which make it seem possible to abstract a limited number of rules. I do not, myself, think that any of these rules are absolutely valid, for on occasion the opposite may be equally true. That is what makes the integration of the unconscious so difficult: we have to learn to think in antinomies, constantly bearing in mind that every ultimate truth turns into an antinomy if it is thought out to the end. All our statements about the unconscious are "eschatological" truths, that is, borderline concepts which formulate a partially apprehended fact or situation, and are therefore only conditionally valid. 14 r 4 The ethical problems that cannot be solved in the light of collective morality or the "old ethic" are conflicts of duty, otherwise they "The most wretched of inventors are those who invent a new morality: they are always immoralists," says a French aphorist. [Untraceable.]

618

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"DEPTH PSYCHOLOGY AND A NEW ETHIC"

would not be ethical. Although I do not share Friedrich Theodor Vischer's optimistic view that morality is always self-evident, I am nevertheless of the opinion that in working out a difficult problem the moral aspect of it has to be considered if one is to avoid a repression or a deception. He who deceives others deceives himself, and vice versa. Nothing is gained by that, least of all the integration of the shadow. Indeed, its integration makes the highest demands on an individual's morality, for the "acceptance of evil" means nothing less than that his whole moral existence is put in question. Decisions of the most momentous kind are called for. The alchemical dictum "The art requires the whole man" is particularly true of the integration of the unconscious, and this process was in fact symbolically anticipated by the alchemists. It is evident, therefore, that the solution will be satisfactory only if it expresses the whole of the psyche. This is not possible unless the conscious mind takes account of the unconscious, unless desire is confronted with its possible consequences, and unless action is subjected to moral criticism. Nor should it be forgotten that moral law is not just something 1415 imposed upon man from outside (for instance, by a crabbed grandfather). On the contrary, it expresses a psychic fact. As the regulator of action, it corresponds to a preformed image, a pattern of behaviour which is archetypical and deeply embedded in human nature. This has no fixed content; it represents the specific form which any number of different contents may take. For one person it is "good" to kill those who think differently from him; for another the supreme law is tolerance; for a third it is a sin to skin an animal with an iron knife; for a fourth it is disrespectful to step on the shadow of a chief. Fundamental to all these rules is "religious observation" or "careful consideration," and this involves a moral effort which is indispensable for the development of consciousness. A saying of Jesus in the Codex Bezae (referring to Luke 6:4) expresses it in lapidary form: "Man, if thou knowest what thou doest, thou art blessed. But if thou knowest not, thou art accursed and a transgressor of the law." We might therefore define the "new ethic" as a development 1416 and differentiation within the old ethic, confined at present to those uncommon individuals who, driven by unavoidable conflicts of duty, endeavour to bring the conscious and the unconscious into responsible relationship. In so far as ethics represent a system of moral demands, it fol14 I7 lows that any innovations within or outside this system would also 619

XI. CMLIZATION" IX TRANSITIOX

possess a ''deontological" character. But the psychic situation to which the new admonition "you ought" would be applicable is so complicated, delicate and difficult that one wonders who would be in a position to make such a demand. Nor would it be needed at all since the ethically minded person who gets into a situation of this sort has already been confronted with this same demand, from within, and knows only too well that there is no collective morality that could extricate him from his dilemma. If the values of the old ethic were not seated in the very marrow of his bones, he would never have got into this situation in the first place. Let us take as an example the universally valid commandment: Thou shalt not lie. What is one to do if, as frequently happens to a doctor, one finds oneself in a situation where it would be a catastrophe to tell the truth or to suppress it? If one does not want to precipitate the catastrophe directly, one cannot avoid telling a convincing lie, prompted by psychological common sense, readiness to help, Christian charity, consideration for the fate of the other people concerned-in short, by ethical motives just as strong as if not stronger than those which compel one to tell the truth. One comforts oneself with the excuse that it was done in a good cause and was therefore moral. But anyone who has insight will know that on the one hand he was too cmvardly to precipitate a catastrophe, and on the other hand that he has lied shamelessly. He has done e,Âˇil but at the same time good. No one stands beyond good and evil, otherwise he would be out of this world. Life is a continual balancing of opposites, like every other energic process. The abolition of opposites would be equivalent to death. Nietzsche escaped the collision of opposites by going into the madhouse. The yogi attains the state of nirdvandua (freedom from opposites) in the rigid lotus position of non-conscious, non-acting samadhi. But the ordinary man stands between the opposites and knows that he can ne,Âˇer abolish them. There is no good without evil, and no evil without good. The one conditions the other, but it does not become the other or abolish the other. If a man is endov.Âˇed with an ethical sense and is convinced of the sanctity of ethical values, he is on the surest road to a conflict of duty ..\nd although this looks desperately like a moral cata~trophe, it alone makes possible a higher differentiation of ethics and a broadening of consciousness. A conflict of duty forces us to examine our conscience and thereby to discover the shadow. This, in turn, forces us to come to terms with the unconscious. The 620

::\ELTJ\IA~N:

"DEPTH PSYCHOLOGY .\::\D .\ T\E\\' ETHIC

ethical aspect of this process of integration is described with praiseworthy clarity by the author. 1 1 4 8 Those who are unfamiliar with the psychology of the unconscious will have some difficulty in em·i~;aging the role which the unconscious plays in the analytical process. The unconscious is a living psychic entity which, it seems, is relatively autonomous, beha\·ing as if it were a personality with intentions of its own. :\t any rate it would be quite wrong to think of the unconscious as mere "material," or as a passive object to be used or exploited. Equally, its biological function is not just a mechanical one, in the sense that it is merely complementmy to consciousness. It has far more the character of compensation, that is, an intelligent choice of means aiming not only at the restoration of the psychic equilibrium but at an advance towards wholeness. The reaction of the unconscious is far from being merely passi\·e; it takes the initiati\·e in a creati\·e way, and sometimes its purposive activity predominates over its customary reactivity ..\s a partner in the process of conscious differentiation, it does not act as a me1 e opponent, for the revelation of its contents enriches comciousness and assists differentiation. :\ hostile oppositicn takes place only when consciousness obstinately clings to its one-sidedness and insists on its arbitrary standpoint, as ahvays happens when there is a repression and, in consequence, a partial dissociation of consciousness. 1419 Such being the behaviour of the unconsciom, the process of coming to terms w;th it, in the ethical sense, acquires a special character. The process does not consist in dealing "·ith a given "material,'' but in negotiating with a p:;;ychic minority (or majority, as the case may be) that has equal rights. For this reason the author compares the relation to the uncon"cious with a parliamentary democracy, whereas the old ethic unconsciously imitates, or actually prefers, the procedure of an absolute monarchy or a tyrannical oneparty system. Through the new ethic, the ego-consciousness is ousted from its central position in a psyche organized on the lines of a monarchy or totalitarian state, its place being taken by wholeness or the self, which is now recognized as central. The self was of course ahvays at the centre, and always acted as the hidden director. Gnosticism long ago projected this state of affairs into the heavens, in the form of a metaphysical drama: ego-consciousness appearing as the vain demiurge, '"'ho fancies himself the sole creator of the world, and the self as the highest, unknov>able God, whose emana621

XI. CIVILIZATION IN TRANSITION

tion the demiurge is. The union of conscious and unconscious in the individuation process, the real core of the ethical problem, was projected in the form of a drama of redemption and, in some Gnostic systems, consisted in the demiurge's discovery and recognition of the highest God. 1 42Â° This parallel may serve to indicate the magnitude of the problem we are concerned with, and to throw into relief the special character of the confrontation with the unconscious on an ethic plane. The problem is indeed a vital one. This may explain why the question of a new ethic is of such serious and urgent concern to the author, who argues his case with a boldness and passion well matched by his penetrating insight and thoughtfulness. I welcome this book as the first notable attempt to formulate the ethical problems raised by the discovery of the unconscious and to make them a subject for discussion. March 1949

FOREWORD TO BAY:\"ES: ".\:\"~\LYTIC..\.L PSYCHOLOGY .\:'\D THE E:\GLISH 11I:'\D''' 142 1

I write these few introductory words to this collection of essays and lectures in affectionate memory of their author. The late H. G. Baynes was my assistant for several years, my travelling companion on our .\frican expedition, and my faithful friend till his all too early death, which has left a painful gap in the circle of his friends and colleagues. 1422 His first published work was his most excellent translation of my book Psychological Types.~ Later he became well known as the author of two important works, Mythology of the Soul 3 and Germany Possessed. 4 The first of these deals with the daily reality of the psychotherapist, and the second with contemporary events. 1423 In .Mythology of the Soul the author uses raw material-such as the psychotherapist meets with daily in his consulting hours-as a clue to guide the reader through the maze of individual reflections, opinions, interpretations, and attempts at explanation which a psychologist gathers in the course of his experience. The empirical material stimulates such considerations, and they are also indispensable in order to integrate it in consciousness. 1424 Germany Possessed is concerned with the great contemporary problems which form a direct challenge to the psychologically minded doctor. This book made the author known to a very wide public. 14 2 5 His shorter writings, which have been collected in this present volume, deal with the complex psychic conditions characteristic of medical psychology. Psychology is thus a discipline which obliges [London, 1950. The foreword was written in English. Helton Godwin Baynes ( 1882-1943), English analytical psychologist, accompanied Jung on his expedition to East Africa in 1925-26.] ~[London and Ne,,· York, 1923. The version in C.W., \·ol. 6, is the Baynes trans. re,·ised by R.F.C. Hull. Baynes also translated, in collaboration ''ith his then wife Cary F. Baynes, Jung's Contributions to Analytical Psychology (London and New York, 1928) and Ta:o Essays on Analytical Psychology (London and New York, 1928).] 1 [London, 1940.] 1 [London, 1941.)

XI.

CIVILIZATIO~

II\' TRA:\' SITI0::\1

the medical psychologist to deal with complex psychic factors, for the psychotherapeutic process can only take place on this level. Therefore analytical psychology is also rightly called "complex psychology."' 1426 .-\ simplifying theory is naturally exceedingly popular in this highly complicated field, but the author has wisely resisted any such temptation. In its place he has drawn from a really remarkable wealth of theoretical and practical points of \Âˇiew and has opened up possibilities and connections worthy of further discussion. 142i H. G. Baynes left us too soon. ~1ay this Yolume, which he has left to us, become a milestone on the road of psychological research.

THE RULES OF LIFE' I4 2 8

I4 2 9

I430

In reply to your kind enquiry about "rules of life," I would like to remark that I have had so much to do with people that I have alway endeavoured to live by no rules as far as possible. ::\on-observance of rules requires, of course, far less effort, for usually one makes a rule in order to repress the tendency in oneself not to follow it. In psychology, above all, rules are valid only when they can be reversed. Also, they are not without their dangers, since they consist of words and our civilization is largely founded on a superstitious belief in words. One of the supreme religious assumptions is actually the "\\' ord."' Words can take the place of men and things. This has its advantages but it is also a menace. One can then spare oneself the trouble of thinking for oneself or making any effort, to one's own advantage or disadvantage and that of one's fellows. I have, for instance, a tendency to make a principle of doing what I want to do or should do as soon as possible. This can be \Âˇery unwise and even stupid. The same applies to practically all adages and "rules of life.'' Take, for example, the saying, "Quidquid id est, prudenter agas et res pice finem" (Âˇwhatever it be, act prudently and consider the end). But in this way, however praiseworthy the principle is, you can let a vitally important decision of the moment slip through your fingers. No rules can cope with the paradoxes of life. :Moral law, like natural law, represents only one aspect of reality. It does not prevent one from following certain "regular'' habits unconsciously-habits which one does not notice oneself but can only discover by making careful inquiries among one's fellows. But people seldom enjoy having what they don't know about themselves pointed out to them by others, and so they prefer to lay down rules which are the exact opposite of what they are doing in reality. 1

[W eltwoche (Zurich), Jhg. 22, no. I I oo (I o Dec. I 954). J ung \\'as one of several prominent persons asked to comment on this suhject.]

0:\ FLYI:\G S.-\UCERS 1 '43 1

Your wish to bring up the "Flying Saucers" for discussion is certainly a timely one. But though you may not have overshot the mark in questioning me, I must tell you that in spite of the interest I have taken in the subject since about 1946, I have still not been able to establish an empirical basis sufficient to permit any conclusions to be drawn. In the course of years I have accumulated a ,·oluminous dossier on the sightings, including the statements of two eyewitnesses well-known to me personally (I myself have never seen anything!) and ha,·e read all the available books, but I han found it impossible to determine even approximately the nature of these observations. So far only one thing is certain: it is not just a rumour, something is seen. What is seen may in individual cases be a subjective vision (or hallucination), or, in the case of se,·eral obsen·ers seeing it simultaneously, a collective one . .-\ psychic phenomenon of this kind would, like a rumour, ha,·e a compensatory significance, since it would be a spontaneous answer of the unconscious to the present conscious situation, i.e., to fears created by an apparently insoluble political situation which might at any moment lead to a uniYersal catastrophe ..-\t such times men's eyes tum to heaven for help, and man·ellous signs appear from on high, of a threatening or reassuring nature. (The "round" symbols are 1

[Letter to Weltu·oche (Zurich), Jhg. 22, no. IOj8 (9 July 1954l, in reply to the editor's request for an inten·iew by Georg Gerster. It was followed by further questions and answers, printed in the same issue. Extracts subsequently appeared as an article (not submitted to Jung before publication) in the Flying Saucer Re•·ieu· (London), l\fay-June 1955. which was reprinted by the Aerial Phenomena Research Organization in the APRO Bulletin (Alamogordo, New ~fexico ', July 1958. The extracted \·ersion of the WeltzL"Oche letters resulted in misunderstandings which were gi\·en much publicity, and on 13 August Jung released a statement to the L'nited Press International (l_'PI 1 and to the National Jm·estigations Committee on Aerial Phenomena (NICAP1, of which an English \·ersion was published in the Sept. issue of the APRO Bulletin. A further statement, in the form of a letter to the director of );JCAP. ~fajor Donald E. Keyhoe (infra. pars. 144-if. 1, was published by :\"IC.-\P in the [ 'FO In; estigator, I: 5 (Aug.-Sept. 1958 l. All these documents were republished in CSI of .\"c:.L· }' ork, Publication No. 2 7 (July 1959) .]

626

0:--r FL YI:--rG SAUCERS

particularly suggestive, appearing nowadays in many spontaneous fantasies directly associated with the threatening world situation.) 1 43 2 The possibility of a purely psychological explanation is iilusory, for a large number of observations point to a natural phenomenon, or even a physical one-for instance, those explicable by reflections from "temperature inYersions" in the atmosphere. Despite its contradictory statements, the American Air Force, as well as the Canadian, consider the sightings to be "real," and haYe set up special bureaux to collect the reports. The "disks," however, that is, the objects themselves, do not behave in accordance with physical laws but as though they were weightless, and they show signs of intelligent guidance such as would suggest quasi-human pilots. Yet the accelerations are so tremendous that no human being could survive them. 1433 The view that the disks are real is so widespread (in America) that reports of landings were not long in coming. Recently I read accounts of this kind from two different sources. In both of them the mystical element in the vision or fantasy was very much in evidence: they described half-human, idealized human beings like angels who delivered the appropriate edifying messages. 2 Unfortunately, there is a total lack of any useful information. And in both cases the photographs failed to come out. Reports of landings, therefore, must for the time being be taken with considerable caution. 1434 What astonishes me most of ail is that the American Air Force, despite ail the information it must possess, and despite its alleged fear of creating a panic similar to the one which broke out in New Jersey on the occasion of Welles's radio play, 3 is systematically working towards that very thing by refusing to release an authentic and reliable account of the facts. 4 All we haYe to go on is the occasional information squeezed out by journalists. It is therefore impossible for the uninitiated to form an adequate picture of what is happening. Although for eight years I have been collecting everything that came within my reach, I must admit I am no further forward today than I was at the beginning. I still do not know what we George Adamski's book (with Desmond Leslie), Flying Saucers Hace Landed. appeared in 1953 (London). In it he tells the story of how he met a saucer-man in the California desert. 3 [The War of the Worlds, adapted by Orson Welles ( 1938) from H. G. Wells's novel. It is about Martians invadin~ the United States.] 4 The report by Major Donald E. Keyhoe concerning his struggle with the Pentagon for recognition of the interplanetary origin of the Ufos \vas published in 1953 under the title Flying Saucers from Outer Space. 2

627

XI. CIVILIZATION IN TRANSITION

are up against with these "flying saucers." The reports are so weird that, granted the reality of these phenomena, one feels tempted to compare them with parapsychological happenings. 1 435 Because we lack any sure foundation, all speculation is worthless. We must wait and see what the future brings. So-called "scientific ·• explanations, such as Menzel's reflection theory, are possible only if all the reports that fail to fit the theory are conveniently overlooked. 1 436 That is all I have to say on the subject of Flying Saucers. An interview would therefore not be worthwhile.

[Supplementary Questions Addressed to ]ung by Letter] Supposing it should turn out that we are being spied upon by non-human, intelligent beings, do you think that this could be assimilated into the existing world-picture without harmful results? Or do you think it would necessarily lead to a kind of Copernican revolution, and that consequently the panic you fear would be a legitimate counteraction? Further, should the responsible authorities take steps to prevent a panic, and what psychohygienic measures seem suitable to you for this purpose? 1

437

These questions are entirely legitimate today, since there are responsible persons-better informed than I-who are of the opinion that the phenomena we are discussing are of extraterrestrial origin. As I have said, I cannot, or cannot yet, share this view, because I have not been able to obtain the necessary confirmation. If these "objects" are, as claimed, of extraterrestrial or possibly planetary origin ( ~Iars, Venus), we still have to consider the reports of Saucers rising out of the sea or the earth. \\' e must also take account of numerous reports of phenomena resembling ball lightning, or strange, stationary will-o' -the-wisps (not to be confused with St. Elmo's fire). In rare cases ball lightning can attain considerable dimensions, appearing as a dazzling ball of light, half as big as the moon, moving slowly from cloud to cloud, or ripping a path about five yards wide and 200 yards long through a forest, smashing all the trees in its way. It is either soundless, like the Saucers, or it can vanish with a clap of thunder. It is possible that ball lightning in the form of isolated charges of electricity (so-called "bead-lightning") is the origin of those Saucers arranged in a row which ha\·e been photographed on several occasions. Other electrical

628

0::'\ FLYING SAllCERS

phenomena have frequently been reported m connection with the Saucers. 1 438 If, despite this still unclarified possibility, the extraterrestrial origin of the Saucers should be confirmed, this would prove the existence of intelligent interplanetary communication. \Vhat such a fact might mean for humanity cannot be imagined. But there is no doubt we would find ourselves in the same critical situation as primitive societies confronted with the superior culture of the white man. The reins of power would be wrenched from our hands, and, as an old witch doctor once told me with tears in his eyes, we would have ''no dreams any more"-the lofty flights of our spirit would have been checked and crippled forever. 1 439 Naturally, the first thing to be consigned to the rubbish heap would be our science and technology. \\'hat the moral effects of such a catastrophe \vould he can be seen from the pitiful decay of primitive cultures taking place before our eye~. That the construction of such machines would be evidence of a scientific technology immensely superior to ours admits of no two opinions. Just as the Pax Britannica put an end to tribal warfare in Africa, so our world could roll up its Iron Curtain and use it as so much scrap along with all the billions of tons of armaments, warships, and munitions. That wouldn't be such a bad thing, but we would have been "discmÂˇered'' and colonized-reason enough for universal panic! 1 440 If we wish to avoid such a catastrophe, the officials in possession of authoritative information should not hesitate to enlighten the public as speedily and thoroughly as possible, and above all stop this stupid game of mystification and suggestive allusion. Instead, they have allowed a lot of fantastic and mendacious publicity to run riot-the best possible preparation for panic and psychic epidemics.

[Further Supplementary Questions] The idea of a pnssible parallel with parapsychological processes is extremely interestint;. Presumably you are thinkin(!, of apparitions? You write that in times like these men's eyes tum to hem'en for help. Are you thinkint; of some period of uphem'al in the past, which produced compmable phenomena? Is there evidence of other collective visions or hallucinations with a similar content? How do you e;;.:plain the fact that with few exreptions Saurers hace so far been observed only over the North American continent.) 62g

XI. CIVILIZATION IN TRANSITION

Does this, in your view, suggest that they are more likely to be psychic-specifically American ((apparitions," as it were-or, on the contrary, that they are of an objective nature? 1441

1442

It is hardly possible to answer your question about the analogy of the Saucers with parapsychological phenomena, since a basis for comparison is totally lacking. If we wished to take such a possibility seriously, it would first have to be shown that the "apparitions" are causally connected with psychic states; in other words, that under the influence of certain emotional conditions a major population group experiences the same psychic dissociation and the same exteriorization of psychic energy as does a single medium. All we know at present is that collective visions do exist. But whether collective physical phenomena, such as levitations, apparitions of light, materializations, etc., can also be produced is a moot question. At present any reference to the parapsychological aspect only demonstrates the boundless perplexity in which we find ourselves today. I cannot refrain from remarking, however, that the whole collective psychological problem that has been opened up by the Saucer epidemic stands in compensatory antithesis to our scientific picture of the world. In the United States this picture has if possible an even greater dominance than with us. It consists, as you know, very largely of statistical or "average" truths. These exclude all rare borderline cases, which scientists fight shy of anyway because they cannot understand them. The consequence is a view of the world composed entirely of normal cases. Like the "normal" man, they are essentially fictions, and particularly in psychology fictions can lead to disastrous errors. Since it can be said with a little exaggeration that reality consists mainly of exceptions to the rule, which the intellect then reduces to the norm, instead of a brightly coloured picture of the real world we have a bleak, shallow rationalism that offers stones instead of bread to the emotional and spiritual hungers of the world. The logical result is an insatiable hunger for anything extraordinary. If we add to this the great defeat of human reason, daily demonstrated in the newspapers and rendered even more menacing by the incalculable dangers of the hydrogen bomb, the picture that unfolds before us is one of universal spiritual distress, comparable to the situation at the beginning of our era or to chaos that followed A.D. I ooo, or the upheavals at the turn of the fifteenth century. It is therefore not surprising if, as the old chroniclers report, 630

I443

I444

FLYI~G

SAUCERS

all sorts of signs and wonders appear in the sky, or if miraculous intervention, where human efforts have failed, is expected from heaven. Our Saucer sightings can be found-mutatis mutandis-in many reports that go back to antiquity, though not, it would seem, with the same overwhelming frequency. But then, the possibility of destruction on a global scale, which has been given into the hands of our so-called politicians, did not exist in those days. McCarthyism and the influence it has exerted are evidence of the deep and anxious apprehensions of the A.merican public. Therefore most of the signs in the skies will be seen in North America. At the beginning of this century I was firmly convinced that nothing heavier than air could fly and that the atom was really "a-tomic" (indivisible). Since then I have become very cautious and will only repeat what I said at the beginning of our correspondence: Despite a fairly thorough knowledge of the available literature (six books and countless reports and articles, including two eyewitness reports), I still do not know what kind of reality the Flying Saucers may have. So I am not in a position to draw conclusions and to form any reliable judgment. I just don't know what one should make of this phenomenon. Statement to the United Press International"

I445

A.s a result of an article published in the APRO Bulletin, the report has been spread by the press that in my opinion the Ufos are physically real. This report is altogether false. In a recently published book (Ein Moderner J1ythus, Zurich, 1958), 6 I expressly state that I cannot commit myself on the question to the physical reality or unreality of the L"fos since I do not possess sufficient evidence either for or against. I therefore concern myself solely with the psychological aspect of the phenomenon, about which a great deal of material is available. I have formulated the position I take on the question of the reality of Ufos in the following sentence: "Something is seen, but it isn't known what.., This formulation leaves the question of "seeing" open. Something material could be seen, or something psychic could be seen. Both are realities, but of different kinds. ''[See abO\Âˇe. n. I. This text is translated from the Badener Tageblatt, 29 Aug. I 958, and differs in some respects from the translation in the APRO Bulletin.] G [Trans. by R.F.C. Hull as Flying Saucers: A .Hodern .Hyth of Things Seen in the Skies (New York and London, I959i; in C.W .. vol. 10.]

631

XI. CIVILIZATION IN TRANSITION 1 446

My relations with APRO are confined to the following: while I was collecting material for the above-mentioned book, the APRO Bulletin approached me in a friendly manner. When this organization recently asked me if they might consider me to be an honorary member, I consented. I have sent my book to APRO to inform them of my position in regard to the Ufo question. APRO advocates the physical reality of the Ufo with much zeal and idealism. I therefore regard its misleading article as a regrettable accident. Letter to Keyhoe'

r6 August I958 ~Iajor Donald E. Keyhoe l\ational Investigation Committee on Aerial Phenomena 1536 Connecticut Avenue Washington 6, D. C.

1447

1448

Dear Major Keyhoe, Thank you very much for your kind letter! I have read all you have written concerning Ufos and I am a subscriber to the ;\"/CAP Bulletin. I am grateful for all the courageous things you have done in elucidating the thorny problem of Ufo-reality. The article in APRO Bulletin July rgs8, which caused all that stir in the press, is unfortunately inaccurate. As you know I am an alienist and medical psychologist. I have never seen a Ufo and I have no first-hand information either about them or about the dubious attitude of the AAF [American Air Force]. On account of this regrettable lack I am unable to form a definite opinion concerning the physical nature of the Ufo-phenomenon. As I am a scientist, I only say what I can prove and reserve my judgment in any case where I doubt my competence. Thus I said: "Things are seen, but one does not know what." I neither affirm, nor deny. But it is certain beyond all possible doubt that plenty of statements about Ufos are made and they are of all sorts. I am chiefly concerned with this aspect of the phenomenon. It yields a rich harvest of insight into its universal significance. My special preoccupation precludes neither the physical reality of the Ufos nor their extraterrestrial origin, nor the purposefulness of their behaviour, etc. But I do not possess sufficient evidence which would enable me to draw 7

[Original in English. See above, n.

1 .)

632

ON FLYING SAUCERS

definite conclusions. The evidence available to me however is convincing enough to arouse a continuous and fervent interest. I follow with my greatest sympathy your exploits and your endeavours to establish the truth about the Ufos. 1 449 In spite of the fact that I hold my judgment concerning the nature of the Ufos-temporarily let us hope-in abeyance, I thought it worth while to throw a light upon the rich fantasy material which has accumulated round the peculiar observations in the skies. Any new experience has two aspects: ( I ) the pure fact and ( 2) the way one conceives of it. It is the latter I am concerned with. If it is true that the AAF or the Government withholds telltale facts, then one can only say that this is the most unpsychological and stupid policy one could imÂˇent. Nothing helps rumours and panics more than ignorance. It is self-evident that the public ought to be told the truth, because ultimately it will nevertheless come to the light of day. There can be hardly any greater shock than the H-bomb and yet everyone knows of it without fainting. 1 450 As to your question about the possible hostility of the Ufos, I must emphasize that I have no other knowledge about them than that which everybody can get out of printed reports. That is the reason why I am still far from certain about the Ufos' physical reality. '45 1 Thank you for your kind offer to send me clippings. I have got enough of them. It is a curious fact that whenever I make a statement it is at once twisted and falsified. The press seems to enjoy lies more than the truth. I remain, dear Major, Yours, C. G. JuNG

HUMAN NATURE DOES NOT YIELD EASILY TO IDEALISTIC ADVICE 1 1452

1453

1 454

There is little to criticize in Mr. Roberts' article since its author is obviously a man of good will and optimistic enthusiasm. Moreover, he points in the right direction, and he gives proper value to man's mental and moral attitude. He hopes and believes, it seems to me, that saying the right and good thing will be enough to produce the desired effect. Unfortunately, human nature is a bit more complicated and does not yield to a well-meaning hint or to idealistic advice. It always has been and still is the great question how to get the ordinary human to the point where he can make up his mind to draw the right conclusion and to do the right thing, or how to make him listen at all. His moral and mental inertia and his notorious prejudices are the most serious obstacle to any moral or spiritual renaissance. If he had been inclined to resist the overwhelming impact of his emotional entanglements, passions, and desires, and to put a stop to the haste and rush of his daily activities, and to try at least to get out of his lamentable yet cherished unconsciousness about himself, the world and its sad history of intrigue, violence, and cruelty would have reached a state of peace and humanity long before Christ-in the time of Buddha or Socrates. But to get him there, that's just the trouble. It is perhaps a good idea to liberate man from all inhibitions and prejudices that hamper, torment, and disfigure him. But the question is less to liberate from something, than rather, as Nietzsche asked, to which end? In certain cases it looks as if in getting rid of one's inhibitions and burdens, one had "thrown away one's best." Liberation can be a good or a very bad solution. It largely depends 1

[Written in English as an invited comment on an article, "Analysis and Faith," by William H. Roberts, which together with comments by Jung and others-including Gregory Zilboorg, Erich Fromm, and Karl Menninger-was published in The New Republic (Washington), 132:20 (z6 May 1955). The article was subtitled: "How close are religion and psychiatry in their approaches to sin and salvation?" Roberts was professor of philosophy and religion at Philander Smith College, a Black college in Little Rock, Arkansas.]

634

HUMAN NATURE AND IDEALISTIC ADVICE

upon the choice of one's further goal whether the liberation has been a boon or a fatal mistake. 1 455 I don't want to go further into the complexities of this problem, and moreover it would be unfair to criticize the author for something he obviously is not aware of, viz., the fact that this formulation of the problem dates from about forty years ago. Since that time, a voluminous literature thoroughly dealing with the point in question has come into existence. I don't know which circumstances have prevented the author from informing himself about the more modern developments in the discussion between religion and psychology. In view of Freud's notorious inability to understand religion, the reader would have welcomed, if not expected, a summary at least of the main work done along this line during the past four decades. Goodwill and enthusiasm are not to be underrated, but ignorance is regrettable.

01\ THE HUI\GARIAI\ UPRISI:'\G 1

456

r. The bloody suppression of the Hungarian people by the Russian army is a vile and abominable crime, to be condemned forthwith. 2. The Egyptian dictator has by unlawful measures provoked Great Britain and France to a warlike act. This is to be deplored as a relapse into obsolete and barbarous methods of politics. II

457

The crushing of Hungary is one more link in the chain of iniquitous events which make the middle of the t\ventieth century one of the blackest chapters in history, rich in infamies as it is. Western Europe had to endure the spectacle of a civilized European country being throttled and, conscious of its own miserable impotence, be content to play the Good Samaritan. Though the great storm of indignation unleashed by outraged public feeling was unable to blow away the Russian tanks, it at least brought with it the relief everyone feels when guilt can he laid beyond all doubt at somebody else's door. In the worldwide moral outcry we scarcely heard the voice of our own conscience, reminding the \Vest of those ,,_Âˇicked deeds of Machiavellianism, short-sightedness, and stupidity without which the events in Hungary would not have been possible. The focus of the deadly disease lies in Europe. [Contributions to symposia: (I) "Das geistige Europa und die ungarische Revolution," Die Kultur (:\1unich), Jhg. 5, no. 73 ( 1 Dec. 1956); (II) Aufstand der Freiheit: Dokumente zur Erhebung des ungarischen Volkes (Zurich, 1957).]

I458

1459

PSYCHODIA.G~OSTICS

Can one, with today's psychodiagnostic methods, determine the suitability of a candidate for a job, in a matter of hours or days, more efficiently than the employer could with the help of his general knowledge of human nature? The employer may haYe a nry good knowledge of human nature, able to size up the total situation intuitiYely in a few seconds. Naturally you can't acquire a knack like this from any method. There are, however, employers who are anything but good judges of men. In this case a careful and conscientious psychodiagnosis is the only right thing . .-\nyway, it is better than nothing, and certainly better than the employer's illusions and projections. Are we right to oppose the use of psychodiagnostics in the selection of candidates, or is it simply another futile attempt to turn back the wheel of history? It would be plain stupid to oppose the use of psychodiagnostics, for these tests are so widely used today that nobody can fight against them. By refusing them one puts oneself in a false position from the start, as in certain cases of refusal to testify in court. But if you are faced with a good judge of men, he will extract your painful secrets from your trouser pocket with the greatest skill without your knowing it, and do it much better than was eYer done by a psychodiagnostic method.

We would like to ask you for a short prognosis concerning the further development of these methods and their influence on society. 1 46Â° I am no prophet, and I cannot predict the future of our society. I can only tell you that I hope for a further improvement in psychodiagnostic methods and in the understanding of man in general, as contrasted with the other possibility that any man may be pushed into any kind of job anywhere. Anything that promotes the understanding of one's fellow men is welcome to me. 1 [Letter of 2 7 ] une I 958, answering questions from the editors of the Zurcher Student (see above, par. 1403, n. I) and published in the July 1958 issue,

Jhg. 36.]

IF CHRIST WALKED THE EARTH TODAY 1 1461

It is absolutely certain that if a Christ should reappear in the world he would be interviewed and photographed by the press and would not live longer than one month. He would die being fed up with himself, as he would see himself banalized beyond all endurance. He would be killed by his own success, morally and physically. [Contribution, written in English, to a symposium published in Cosmopolitan (New York), CXLV:6 (Dec. 1958), and consisting of "ten highly individual opinions from noted thinkers who have devoted their lives to problems of the spirit." These also included Norman Vincent Peale, Aldous Huxley, Pitirim A. Sorokin, and Billy Graham.] 1

FOREWORD TO "HUGH CRICHTON-MILLER, 1877-1959"1 1462

1 463

It is more than thirty years ago--on the occasion of a short stay in England-that I became acquainted with Dr. Hugh Crichton-~Iiller. Being a stranger and, on account of my unorthodox Yiews, a psychiatric outsider, I was deeply impressed by the friendly, open, and unprejudiced manner of his welcome. Not only did he introduce me to the staff of his clinic, he also invited me to give them a short address-much to my embarrassment, since I never felt particularly certain of myself when called upon to talk to an entirely unknown audience. But I soon felt the presence of an atmosphere of mutual trust and confidence between chief and staff, so that I could talk to them in a more or less natural way-at least I hope so. Talking to Crichton-Miller was easy. I felt we were speaking the same language, though our views were not always the same. But they were reasonably different, so that a satisfactory discussion was possible. Whenever I had a chance in the course of many years, I very much enjoyed discussing controversial points Âˇwith him. He was for I don't know how many years the only man of my age with whom I could talk as man to man, without constantly fearing that my partner would suddenly throw a fit or become otherwise impolite. \Ve took each other at our face value and in the course of years we grew slowly into the conviction that we had a good relationship. Such a silent conviction can be, in spite of eYerything, an illusion as long as it has not come to an actual showdown. The proof of this came in the last years before the second World War. \Ve then had an international Society for Psychotherapy on the continent consisting of a Dutch, Danish, Swiss, and a very large German group. The president of the Society had been Professor Kretschmer up to 1933, when he resigned in the fatal year of Hitler's usurpation of power. I had been up to then in the inactive [The book (Dorchester, 1961) had the subtitle "A Personal Memoir by His Friends and Family." The foreword, written in English, is published here \\"ith minor stylistic changes.]

XI. CIVILIZATION IX TRANSITION

role of an honorary Yice-president. The German group, afraid of getting amalgamated with, i.e., overshadowed by, the far more influential ··society for Psychiatry" with its well-known anti-psychological prejudice, asked me to take over the function of president, just because I was non-German and would therefore emphasize the international character of the organization. They hoped in that way to escape complete annihilation, even if they had to survive in a society of herb addicts and believers in "natural healing." I knew it would be a very difficult task if I were to accept this proposition. But having been vice-president for a number of years, I did not consider it particularly honourable conduct to get cold feet, and so I stepped in. 1 464. The first task confronting me was to increase the non-German membership in order to form an adequate counterweight. We added a Swedish group, and I opened negotiations with French representatiYes, but I looked most toward England and America. The first person I approached was Crichton-Miller, and I did not find him wanting. He understood the situation and my motives. The Germans became more and more difficult and tried to overwhelm us with a large Italian and even a Japanese membership. Since nothing was knovm of modern medical psychology in either of those contries, the long lists of new members were composed by order and consisted of people who were absolutely innocent of the slightest professional knowledge of modern psychotherapy. Shortly before the outbreak of the war, it came to a decisive showdown with the Germans in Zurich. Being the British representative, Crichton-Miller lent me personally his im·aluable help to ward off the German intrigue. I am forever grateful to him for his sturdy co-operation and his truly loyal friendship. That was the man I shall never forget. 1465 During the war we naturally saw nothing of each other, and it was only afterwards that I received the shocking news of his fatal disease. I wanted Yery much to see him again but was overburdened with urgent work and hampered by the consequences of an injury to my heart. I found no occasion to go to England. Fortunately enough, in 1949 he could manage to come out to Switzerland, to the Bernese Oberland, where I went to meet him and his wife. I found him in an advanced stage of his illness. As he had expressed the urgent wish to talk to me, I was eager to hear from him what it was. After lunch we withdrew. He took out a sheet of paper with a closely written text. As our talks hitherto had never been intimate or personal, I was surprised when he

640

FOREWORD TO "HUGH CRICHTON-MILLER"

plunged straight in medias res and asked me to answer a number of questions on religion. It was a complete survey of the religio medici, of all the religious conclusions an old doctor might draw from his innumerable experiences of suffering and death and from the inexorable reality of life's reverses. I knew we were talking in conspectu mortis of ultimate things, at the end of days. Then we took leave of each other, shook hands amiably and politely, as if after a delightful lunch with a distant yet friendly acquaintance. Vale amice! January 1960

XII PSYCHOLOGY AND RELIGION (related to Volume

I I

of the Collected Works)

WHY I AM NOT A CATHOLIC 1 1

466

1 467

1 468

Firstly: Because I am a practical Christian to whom love and justice to his brother mean more than dogmatic speculations about whose ultimate truth or untruth no human being can ever have certain knowledge. The relation to my brother and the unity of the true "catholic" Christendom is to me infinitely more important than "justification by fide sola.JJ As a Christian I have to share the burden of my brother's wrongness, and that is most heavy when I do not know whether in the end he is not more right than I. I hold it to be immoral, in any case entirely unchristian, to put my brother in the wrong (i.e., to call him fool, ass, spiteful, obdurate, etc.) simply because I suppose myself to be in possession of the absolute truth. Every totalitarian claim gradually isolates itself because it excludes so many people as "defectors, lost, fallen, apostate, heretic," and so forth. The totalitarian maneuvers himself into a corner, no matter how large his original following. I hold all confessionalism to be completely unchristian. Secondly: Because I am a doctor. If I possessed the absolute truth I could do nothing further than to press into my patient's hand a book of devotion or confessional guidance, just what is no longer of any help to him. When, on the other hand, I discover in his untruth a truth, in his confusion an order, in his lostness something that has been found, then I have helped him. This requires an incomparably greater self-abnegation and self-surrender for my brother's sake than if I assessed, correctly from the standpoint of one confession, the motivations of another. You underestimate the immense number of those of goodwill, but to whom confessionalism blocks the doors. A Christian has to concern himself, especially if he is a physician of souls, with the spirituality of the reputedly unspiritual (spirit = confessionalism!) and he can do this only if he speaks their language and certainly not if, in the deterrent way of confessionalism, he sounds the kerygmatic 1 [(Translated by H. N.) Written as part of a letter to H. Inninger of Zurich, n Sept. 1944, but not sent; instead, Jung retained it in his literary papers. For the letter to Irminger, see Jung: Letters, ed. G. Adler, vol. 1 .]

XII. PSYCHOLOGY AND RELIGION

trumpet, hoarse with age. Whoever talks in today's world of an absolute and single truth is speaking in an obsolete dialect and not in any way in the language of mankind. Christianity possesses a ruayyâ&#x201A;ŹAwv, good tidings from God, but no textbook of a dogma with claim to totality. Therefore it is hard to understand why God should never have sent more than one message. Christian modesty in any case strictly forbids assuming that God did not send evayyâ&#x201A;ŹA.La in other languages, not just in Greek, to other nations. If we think otherwise our thinking is in the deepest sense unchristian. The Christian-my idea of Christian-knows no curse formulas; indeed he does not even sanction the curse put on the innocent fig-tree by the rabbi Jesus, nor does he lend his ear to the missionary Paul of Tarsus when he forbids cursing to the Christian and then he himself curses the next moment. 1469 Thirdly: Because I am a man of science. I47Â° The Catholic doctrine, as you present it to me so splendidly, is familiar to me to that extent. I am convinced of its "truth" in so far as it formulates determinable psychological facts, and thus far I accept this truth without further ado. But where I lack such empirical psychological foundations it does not help me in the least to believe in anything beyond them, for that would not compensate for my missing knowledge; nor could I ever surrender to the selfdelusion of knowing something where I merely believe. I am now nearly seventy years old, but the charisma of belief has never arisen in me. Perhaps I am too overweening, too conceited; perhaps you are right in thinking that the cosmos circles around the God Jung. But in any case I have never succeeded in thinking that what I believe, feel, think, and understand is the only and final truth and that I enjoy the unspeakable privilege of God-likeness by being the possessor of the sole truth. You see that, although I can estimate the charisma of faith and its blessedness, the acceptance of "faith" is impossible for me because it says nothing to me. 14 71 You will naturally remonstrate that, after all, I talk about "God." I do this with the same right as humanity has from the beginning equated the numinous effects of certain psychological facts with an unknown primal cause called God. This cause is beyond my understanding, and therefore I can say nothing further about it except that I am convinced of the existence of such a cause, and indeed with the same logic by which one may conclude from the disturbance of a planet's course the existence of a yet unknown heavenly body. To be sure, I do not believe in the absolute

646

WHY I AM NOT A CATHOLIC

1 47 2

validity of the law of causality, which is why I guard against "positing" God as cause, for by this I would have given him a precise definition. Such restraint is surely an offense to confessors of the Faith. But according to the fundamental Christian commandment I must not only bear with and understand my schismatic Protestant brother, but also my brothers in Arabia and India. They, too, have received strange but no less notable tidings which it is my obligation to understand. As a European, I am burdened most heavily by my unexpectedly dark brother, who confronts me with his antichristian Neo-Paganism. This extends far beyond the borders of Germany as the most pernicious schism that has ever beset Christianity. And though I deny it a thousand times, it is also in me. One cannot come to terms with this conflict by imputing wrong to someone else and the undoubted right to onself. This conflict I can solve first of all only within myself and not in another.

THE DEFINITION OF DEMONISM 1 Demon ism (synonymous with daemonomania = possession) denotes a peculiar state of mind characterized by the fact that certain psychic contents, the so-called complexes, take over the control of the total personality in place of the ego, at least temporarily, to such a degree that the free will of the ego is suspended. In certain of these states ego-consciousness is present, in others it is eclipsed. Demonism is a primordial psychic phenomenon and frequently occurs under primitive conditions. (Good descriptions in the New Testament, Luke 4:34, Mark I: 23, 5:2, etc.) The phenomenon of demonism is not always spontaneous, but can also be deliberately induced as a "trance," for instance in shamanism, spiritualism, etc. ( Cf. J. Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics; Schiirer. "Zur Vorstellung von der Besessenheit im Neuen Testament," ] ahrbuch fur protestantische T heologie, 1 8g2.) 1 474 Medically, demonism belongs partly to the sphere of the psychogenic neuroses, partly to that of schizophrenia. Demonism can also be epidemic. One of the most celebrated epidemics of the Middle Ages was the possession of the Ursulines of London, 1632. The epidemic form includes the induced collective psychoses of a religious or political nature, such as those of the twentieth century. ( Cf. G. le Bon, The Crowd, a Study of the Popular Mind, 18g6; Otto Stoll, Suggestion und Hypnotismus in der Volkerpsychologie, 2nd edn., I 904.)

1 4 73

[Written July 1945, at the request of Encyclios-Vcrlag, Zurich, publishers of the Schweizer Lexikon. The first sentence and the references at the end of the article were published (without attribution) as the definition of "Damonie" in the Lexikon ( 1949), vol. I.]

FOREWORD TO ]Ul\G: "SYl\IBOLIK DES GEISTES"

(1948) I475

The present volume, the sixth of the Psychologische Abhandlungen, contains five essays which are concerned with the symbolism of the spirit: a study of Satan in the Old Testament by Dr. Riwkah Scharf, 1 and four essays from my pen. The first essay in the book, "The Phenomenology of the Spirit in Fairytales," 2 gives an account of the "spirit archetype," or rather, of a dream and fairytale motif whose behaviour is such that one has to conceive of it a5 "spirit." Examples are also given of the dramatic entanglements to which the appearance of this motif leads. The second essay describes how, in the medieval natural philosophy of the alchemists, the primitive "nature-spirit" developed into the "Spirit l\1ercurius."3 As the original texts show, a spirit-figure came into being that was directly opposed to the Christian view of the spirit. The third contribution, by Dr. Scharf, describes the historical development of the ungodly spirit, Satan, as depicted in the texts of the Old Testament. The fourth essay, "A Psychological Approach to the Dogma of the Trinity, ., 4 gives a brief sketch of the historical development of the trinitarian concept before and after Christ, followed by a synopsis of psychological viewpoints that need to be taken into account for a rational comprehension of the idea of the Trinity. It goes without saying that in any such discussion, metaphysical views cannot be considered, because, within the confines of a scientific psychology and its tasks, an idea characterized as "metaphysical" can claim the significance only of a psychic phenomenon. Equally the psychologist does not presume to say anything "metaphysical," i.e., transcending his proper province, about his subject-matterthat lies outside his competence. In so far-and only so far-as the Trinity is not merely an object of belief but, over and above that, a human concept falling within the purview of psychology, ["Die Gestalt Satans im Alten Testament"; trans., Satan in the Old Testament (Evanston, I g67) .] "[In The Archetypes and the CollecticÂˇe Unconscious, C.W., vol. g, i.] 1 [In Alchemical Studies, C. W., vol. I 3.] 1 [In Psychology and Religion: West and East, C.W., vol. I I.] 1

649

XII. PSYCHOLOGY AND RELIGION

can it be subjected to scientific observation. This does not affect the object of belief in any way. The reader will do well to keep this limitation of the theme constantly in mind. 1476 The final contribution 3 is a description and analysis of a Chinese, but originally Indian, text which describes a way of meditation for the attainment of Buddhahood. I have added this essay for the purpose of rounding out the picture for my reader, showing him an Eastern aspect of it. '477 It now remains for me to correct an error. In my book The Psychology of the Transference 6 I promised to publish my new work, Mysterium Coniunctionis,' as volume 6 of the "Psychologische Abhandlungen." Owing to illness and other causes I had to alter plans and am therefore publishing Symbolik des Geistes in its stead. The above-mentioned work will not go to press until later. june 1947 ["The Psychology of Eastern Mediation," ibid.] [Die Psychologie der Obertragung, p. xi. Cf. foreword to "The Psychology of the Transference" (C.W., vol. 16).] 7 [C.W., vol. 14.]

FOREWORD TO QUISPEL: "TRAGIC CHRISTIANITY" 1 '4 78

The author of this essay has asked me to start off his book with a few introductory words. Although I am not a philologist, I gladly accede to this request because Dr. Quispel has devoted particular attention to a field of work which is familiar also to me from the psychological standpoint. Gnosticism is still an obscure affair and in need of explanation, despite the fact that sundry personages have already approached it from the most diverse angles and tried their hands at explanations with doubtful success. One even has the impression that the ban on heresy still hangs over this wide domain, or at least the disparagement which specialists are accustomed to feel for annoying incomprehensibilities. We have an equivalent of this situation in psychiatry, which has ostentatiously neglected the psychology of the psychoses and shows pronounced resistances to all attempts in this direction. This fact, though astonishing in itself, is, however, comprehensible when one considers the difficulties to be overcome once one tries to fathom the psychology of delusional ideas. We can understand mental illness only if we have some understanding of the mind in general. Delusional ideas cannot be explained in terms of themselves, but only in terms of our knowledge of the normal mind. Here the only phenomenological method that promises success, as opposed to philosophical and religious prejudice, has made next to no headway, indeed it has still not even been understood. The fundamental reason for this is that the doctor, to whom alone psychopathological experiences are accessible, seldom or never has the necessary epistemological premises at his command. Instead of which, if he reflects at all and does not merely observe and register, he has usually succumbed to a philosophical or religious conviction and fills out the gaps in his knowledge with professions of faith. [According to information from Gilles Quispel (professor of ancient church history, Utrecht University, Netherlands), in 1949 he planned to publish in Bollingen Series a volume of his lectures given at the Eranos conferences. The projected title was Tragic Christianity, and Jung consented to write this foreword. The book was never published.)

65 1

XII. PSYCHOLOGY AXD RELIGIOX

\\"hat is true of psychopathology can-mutatis mutandis-be applied directly to the treatment which Gnosticism has undergone. Its peculiar mental products demand the same psychological understanding as do psychotic delusional formations. But the philologist or theologian who concerns himself with Gnosticism generally posse~ses not a shred of psychiatric knowledge, which must always be called upon in explaining extraordinary mental phenomena. The explanation of Gnostic ideas "in terms of themseh·es," i.e., in terms of their historical foundations, is futile, for in that way they are reduced only to their le._'\S deYeloped forestages but not understood in their actual significance. q8o \\"e find a similar state of affairs in the psychopathology of the neuroses, where, for instance, Freud's psychoanalysis reduces the neurotic symptomatology only to its infantile forestages and completely oYerlooks its functional, that is, its symbolic ,·alue. So long as we know only the causality or the historical deYelopment of a normal biological or psychic phenomenon, but not its functional de,·elopment, i.e., its purposi\"C significance, it is not really understood. The same is true of Gnostic ideas: they are not mere symptoms of a certain historical deYelopment, but creatiYe new configurations which were of the utmost significance for the further de\·elopment of Western consciousness. One has only to think of the Jewish-Gnostic presuppositions in Paul"s writings and of the immense influence of the "gnostic" gospel of John . .-\part also from these important witnesses, and in spite of being persecuted, branded as heresy, and pronounced dead within the realm of the Church, Gnosticism did not die out at once by any means. Its philosophical and psychological aspects went on de,·eloping in alchem\· up to the time of Goethe, and the Jewish syncretism of the age of Philo~ found its continuation within orthodox Judaism in the Kabbala. Both these trends, if not exactly forestages of the modern psychology of the unconscious. are at all eYents well-nigh inexhaustible sources of knowledge for the psychologist. This is no accident inasmuch as parallel phenomena to the empirically established contents of the collectiH unconscious underlie the earliest Gnostic sYstems. The archetypal motifs of the unconscious are the psychic source of Gnostic ideas, of delusional ideas (especially of the paranoid

'479

'[Philo Judaeus (fl. A.D. 39\. Graeco-Judaic philosopher of Alexandria. His \.-arks include commentaries on the Old Testament, \\·hich he interpreted allegorically, finding in it the source of the main doctrines cf Plato. Aristotle, and other Greek philosophers.]

Ql'ISPEL:

1 48 1

1482

''TRAGIC CHRISTL\):ITY ..

schizophrenic forms), of symbol-formation in dreams, and of active imagination in the course of an analytical treatment of neurosis. In the light of these reflections, I regret Dr. Quispel's quotations from the Gnostics, that the ".-\utopator contained in himself all things, in [a state of] unconsciousness ( €v O:yvw<ria) '' 3 and that "The Father was de\·oid of consciousness ( avEWD1JToc;) ,'' 4 as a fundamental discm·ery for the psychology of Gnosticism. It means nothing less than that the Gnostics in question deri\·ed the knowable lJ7TEPKD<TtJ-a from the unconscious, i.e., that these represented unconscious contents. This discm·ery results not only in the possibility but also in the necessity of supplementing the historical method cf explanation by one that is based on a scientific psychology. Psychology is indebted to the author for his endeavours to facilitate the understanding of Gnosticism, not merely because we psychologists have made it our task to explain Gnosticism, but because we see in it a tertium comparationis which affords us the most valuable help in the practical understanding of modern individual symbol-formation . .\fay

1 949

3 Epiphanius, Panarium, XXXI, cap V. [The quotation is here abbre\'iated; for J ung's fuller \'ersion of the Greek text see A ion ( C.W., \'Ol. g, ii), par. 298 and n. 16.] 'Hippolytus, Elenchos, VI, 42, 4· [This quotation, also abbre\'iated here, comes immediately after the one from Epiphanius m Aion, par. 298, where Jung cites Quispel's French trans. of the Greek text.]

FOREWORD TO ABEGG: "OST AS IEN DENKT ANDERS" 1 I483

The author of this book, the entire text of which unfortunately I have not seen, has talked to me about her project and about her ideas with regard to the difference between Eastern and Westem psychology. Thus I was able to note many points of agreement between us, and also a competence on her part to make judgments which is possible only to one who is a European and at the same time possesses the invaluable advantage of having spent more than half a lifetime in the Far East, in close contact with the mind of Asia. Without such first-hand experience it would be a hopeless task to approach the problem of Eastern psychology. One must be deeply and directly moved by the strangeness, one might almost say by the incomprehensibility, of the Eastern psyche. Decisive experiences of this kind cannot be transmitted through books; they come only from living in immediate, daily relationship with the people. Having had unusual advantages in this respect, the author is in a position to discuss what is perhaps the basic, and is in any case an extremely important, question of the difference between Eastern and Western psychology. I have often found myself in situations where I had to take account of this difference, as in the study of Chinese and East Indian literary texts and in the psychological treatment of Asiatics. Among my patients, I am sorry to say, I have never had a Chinese or a Japanese, nor have I had the privilege of visiting either China or Japan. But at least I have had the opportunity to experience with painful clarity the insufficiency of my knowledge. In this field we still have everything to learn, and whatever we learn will be to our immense advantage. Knowledge of Eastern psychology provides the indispensable basis for a [Zurich, I 950. ("East Asia Thinks Otherwise.") The foreword was not included in the English-language edition of the book, by Lily Abegg, The .\1 ind of East Asia (London and New York, I 952). It is reproduced here, in a translation by Hildegard Nagel and Ellen Thayer, titled "The Mind of East and West," from the Inward Light (Washington, D.C.), no. 49, (autumn I 955), having previously appeared in the Bulletin of the Analytical Psychology Club of .ll.'ew York vol. IS, no. 3 (Mar. I953).]

654

ABEGG:

"OSTASIEN DENKT ANDERS"

critique of Western psychology, as indeed for any objective understanding of it. And in view of the truly lamentable psychic situation of the West, the importance of a deeper understanding of our Occidental prejudices can hardly be overestimated. r484 Long experience with the products of the unconscious has taught me that there is a very remarkable parallelism between the specific character of the Western unconscious psyche and the "manifest" psyche of the East. Since our experience shows that the biological role which the unconscious plays in the psychic economy is compensatory to consciousness, one can venture the hypothesis that the mind of the Far East is related to our Western consciousness as the unconscious is, that is, as the left hand to the right. 1485 Our unconscious has, fundamentally, a tendency toward wholeness, as I believe I have been able to prove. One would be quite justified in saying the same thing about the Eastern psyche, but with this difference: that in the East it is consciousness that is characterized by an apperception of totality, while the West has developed a differentiated and therefore necessarily one-sided attention or awareness. With it goes the Western concept of causality, a principle of cognition irreconcilably opposed to the principle of synchronicity which forms the basis and the source of Eastern "incomprehensibility," and explains as well the "strangeness" of the unconscious with which we in the West are confronted. The understanding of synchronicity is the key which unlocks the door to the Eastern apperception of totality that we find so mysterious. The author seems to have devoted particular attention to just this point. I do not hesitate to say that I look forward to the publication of her book with the greatest interest. March 1949

6ss

FOREWORD TO :\LLE:\BY: ":\ PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE ORIGI:\S OF ~10:\0THEIS~l .. 1 r486

1487

1488

It can no longer be doubted today that meaningful connections are disco\·erable in dreams and other spontaneous manifestations of the unconscious. This raises the question of the origin of unconscious contents. Are they genuine creai.ions of the unconscious psyche, or thoughts that were originally conscious but subsequently became unconscious for one reason or another? The individual dream-thoughts, or at least their elements, J.re always of conscious origin, otherwise they could not he represented or recognized. Also, a whole sequence of images connected together in a meaningful way, or an entire scene, frequently derives from the conscious memory. But when we consider the meaning of the dream as a whole, the question of derivation becomes much more difficult to answer. So far as can be established empirically, the function of dreams is to ccmpensate the conscious situation, as though there were a natural drive to restore the balance. The more one-sided the conscious situation is, the more the compensation takes on a complementary character. Obvious examples of this can be found in people who naively deceive themse!Yes or who ho!d to some fanatical belief. As we know, the most lurid scenes of temptation are depicted in the dreams of ascetics. In such cases it would be Yery difficult to proYe that the meaning of the dream derives from a conscious thought that subsequently became unconscious, for ob\·iously no such reflection or self-criticism ever took place and for that very reason had to be performed by the dream. The hypothesis becomes completely untenable when the dreams produce meaningful connections which are absolutely unknown to the dreamer or which cannot be known to him. The clearest phenomena of this kind, com·incing enn to the layman, are telepathic dreams which give information concerning events at a distance or in the future, beyond the range of sense-perception. The'e phenomena offer striking proof that there are meaningful [Written for Amy I. Allenby's book (Ph.D. dissertation, Oxford L" .1, which was not published. Dr. Allenby is an analytical psychologist in Oxford.]

ALLE~BY:

1489

149Â°

1 49 1

1492

"THE ORIGI~S OF MO~OTHEISM"

connections in the unconscious which are not derived from conscious reflection. The same is true of dream motifs found otherwise only in myths and fairytales, and exhibiting characteristic forms of which the dreamer has no conscious knowledge. Here we are not dealing in any sense with ideas, but with instinctual factors, the fundamental forms that underlie ail imaginative representation; in short, with a pattern of mental behaviour which is ingrained in human nature. This accounts for the uni\Âˇersal occurrence of these archetypes of the imagination. Their a priori presence is due to the fact that they, like the instincts, are inherited, and therefore constantly produce mythological motifs in every individual as soon as his imagination is given free play, or whenever the unconscious gains the upper hand. Modern psychological experience has shown that not only the meaning of the dream, but also certain dream-contents, must derive entirely from the unconscious, for the simple reason that they could not have been known to consciousness and therefore cannot he derived from it. However slight the effect of a particular dream may be, the unconscious compensation is of great importance for a man's conscious life and for what one ca11s his "fate." The archetypes naturaiiy play a considerable role here, and it is no accident that these determining factors have always been personified in the form of gods and demons. Since the relation of the unconscious to consciousness is not a mechanical one and not purely complementary, but performs a meaningful and compensatory function, the question arises as to who might be the "author" of the effects produced. In our ordinary experience, phenomena of this kind occur only in the realm of the thinking and willing ego-consciousness. There are, however, very similar "inteiiigent" acts of compensation in nature, especiaily in the instinctual activities of animals. For us, at least, they do not have the character of conscious decisions, but appear to be just like human activities that are exclusively controiied by the unconscious. The great difference between them is that the instinctual behaviour of animals is predictable and repetitive, whereas the compensatory acts of the unconscious are individual and creative. The "author" in both cases seems to he the pattern of behaviour, the archetype. Although in human beings the archetype represents a coilective and almost universal mode of action and reaction, its activitv cannot as a rule he predicted; one never knows when an

657

XII. PSYCHOLOGY AND RELIGION

archetype will react, and which archetype it will be. But once it is constellated, it produces "numinous'' effects of a determining character. Thus Freud not only stumbled on the Oedipus complex but also discovered the dual-mother motif of the hero mvth in Leonardo da \'inci. But he made the mistake of deriving this motif from the fact that Leonardo had two mothers in reality, namely, his real mother and a stepmother. Actually, the dual-mother motif occurs not only in myths but also in the dreams and fantasies of individuals who neither have two mothers nor know anything about the archetypal motifs in mythology. So there is no need of two mothers in reality to evoke the dual-mother motif. On the contrary, the motif shows the tendency of the unconscious to reproduce the dual-mother situation, or the story of double descent or child-substitution, usually for the purpose of compensating the subject's feelings of inferiority. 1 493 .-\s the archetypes are instinctive, inborn forms of psychic behaviour, they exert a powerful influence on the psychic processes. Unless the conscious mind interHnes critically and with an effort of will, things go on happening as they have always happened, whether to the advantage or disadvantage of the individual. The advantages seem to preponderate, for otherwise the development of consciousness could hardly have come about. The advantage of "free" will is indeed so obvious that civilized man is easily persuaded to leave his whole life to the guidance of consciousness, and to fight against the unconscious as something hostile, or else dismiss it as a negligible factor. Because of this, he is in danger of losing all contact with the world of instinct-a danger that is still further increased by his lhÂˇing an urban existence in what seems to be a purely manmade emÂˇironment. 1 494 This loss of instinct is largely responsible for the pz..thological condition of our contemporary culture. The great psychotherapeutic systems embodied in religion still struggle to keep the way open to the archetypal world of the psyche, but religion is increasingly losing it.;; grip with the result that much of Europe today has become dechristianized or actually anti-Christian. Seen in this light, the efforts of modern psychology to investigate the unconscious seem like salutary reactions of the European psyche, as if it were seeking to re-establish the connection with its lost roots. It is not simply a matter of rescuing the natural instincts (this seems to have been Freud's particular preoccupation), but of making contact again with the archetypal functions that set bounds to the instincts and

658

ALLENBY:

1 495

1 496

"THE ORIGINS OF MONOTHEISM"

give them form and meaning. For this purpose a knowledge of the archetypes is indispensable. The question of the existence of an archetypal God-image is naturally of prime importance as a factor determining human behaviour. From the history of symbols as well as from the case histories of patients it can be demonstrated empirically that such a God-image actually exists, an image of wholeness which I have called the symbol of the self. It occurs most frequently in the form of mandala symbols. The author of this book has made it her task to investigate the psychological aspect of the God-image on the one hand and the theological aspect of the self on the other--a task which in my view is as necessary as it is timely. At a time when our most valuable spiritual possessions are being squandered, we would do well to consider very carefully the meaning and purpose of the things we so heedlessly seek to cast overboard. And before raising the cry that modern psychology destroys religious ideas by "psychologizing" them, we should reflect that it is just this psychology which is trying to renew the connection with the realities of the psyche, lest consciousness should flutter about rootlessly and helplessly in the void, a prey to every imaginable intellectualism. Atrophy of instinct is equivalent to pathological suggestibility, the devastating effects of which may be witnessed in the recurrent psychic epidemics of totalitarian madness. I can only hope this book finds a wide circle of serious readers.

May 1950

THE 1\!IR:\CULOUS FAST OF BROTHER KL:-\US 1 1497

1498

The fact that Brother Klaus, on his own admission and according to the reports of reliable witnesses, lived without material sustenance for twenty years is something that cannot be brushed aside however uncomfortable it may be. In the case of Therese of Konnersreuth~ there are also reports, whose reliability of course I can neither confirm nor contest, that for a long period of time she lived simply and solely on holy wafers. Such things naturally cannot be understood with our present knowledge of physiology. One would be well advised, however, not to dismiss them as utterly impossible on that account. There are very many things that earlier were held to be impossible which nevertheless we know and can prm·e to be possible today. Naturally I have no explanation to offer concerning such phenomena as the fast of Brother Klaus, but I am inclined to think it should be sought in the realm of parapsychology. I myself was present at the investigation of a medium who manifested physical phenomena. An electrical engineer measured the degree of ionization of the atmosphere in the immediate vicinity of the medium. The figures were everywhere normal except at one point on the right side of the thorax, where the ionization was about sixty times the normal. :\t this point, when the (parapsychological) phenomena were in progress, there was an emission of ectoplasm capable of acting at a distance. If such things can occur, then it is also conceivable that persons in the vicinity of the medium might act as a source of ions~in other words. nourishment might he effected [Translated from "Das Fastenwunder des Bruder Klaus.'' .\"eue Wissenschaft (Baden. S"·itzerlandl. tgso/s•. no. 7: re,·i;;ed from a letter to Fritz Blanke, 1o NO\·. 194B, thanking him for his hook Bruder Klaus z on Flue (Zurich. 1948). Cf. /.etters, ed. G. Adler, ,·ol. 1. A prefatory note hy the editor of .\'eue ll'issenschaft states: "The period of Brother Klaus's fast lasted from 146; to qil ;. All contemporary "itnesses, e\·en those in the immediate neighbourhood of the saint, agree that during this time he took no nourishment."] :: [Therese :\'t.'umann ( tSBg- 1 g62). generally known as Therese of Konnersreuth. Switzerland. stigmatized since 1926, when she claimrd to h:n·e rr-exprrienced Christ's P:mion.]

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THE MIRACC'LOUS FAST OF BROTHER KLACS

by the passage of living molecules of albumen from one body to another. In this connection it should be mentioned that in parapsychological experiments decreases of weight up to several kilograms have been observed during the (physical) phenomena, in the case both of the medium and of some of the participants, who were all sitting on scales. This seems to me to offer a possible approach to an explanation. Unfortunately these things have been far too little investigated at present. This is a task for the future.

CO:'\CER:\T'\G "A:'\SWER TO JOB"' 1 I

498a

This is not a "scientific'" book but a personal confrontation with the traditional Christian world Yiew, occasioned by the impact of the new dogma of the Assumption. It echoes the reflections of a physician and theological layman, who had to find the answers to many questions on religious matters and was thus compelled to wrestle with the meaning of religious ideas from his particular, nonconfessional standpoint. In addition, the questions were motiYated by contemporary eyents: falsehood, in justice, sla\Âˇery, and mass murder engulfed not only major parts of Europe hut continue to prevail in vast areas of the world. \\'hat ha<> a bene\Âˇolent and almighty God to say to these problems? This desperate question, asked a thousand times, is the concern of this hook. [(Translated by R. H.) Author's description, printed on the dust jacket of the original edn. of Antu'OTt auf Hiob, which was published in Zurich around I Apr. I952. It was reprinted in the appendix to Gesam. Werke, XI, p. 68;, but not in C.W., vol. I I (which contains "Answer to Job'" .J

RELIGIOX AXD PSYCHOLOGY: .-\ REPLY TO ~IAR TIX BL.BER 1 Some while ago the readers of your magazine were given the opportunity to read a posthumous article by Count Keyser ling,~ in which I was characterized as "unspiritual. .. l'\ow, in your last issue, I find an article by ~Iartin Buber 3 which is likewise concerned with my classification. I am indebted to his pronouncements at least in so far as they raise me out of the condition of unspirituality, in which Count Keyserling saw fit to present me to the German public, into the sphere of spirituality, e\·en though it be the spirituality of early Christian Gnosticism, which has always been looked at askance by theologians. funnily enough this opinion of Buber's coincides with another utterance from an authoritative theological scurce accusing me of agnosticism-the exact opposite of Gnosticism. 15oo Now when opinions about the same subject differ so widely, there is in my view ground for the suspicion that none of them is correct, and that there has been a misunderstanding. Why is so much attention devoted to the question of whether I am a Gnostic or an agnostic? Why is it not simply stated that I am a psychiatrist ,.,·hose prime concern is to record and interpret his empirical material? I try to investigate facts and make them more generally comprehensible. ·My critics have no right to slur over this in order to attack individual statements taken out of context. 1 5° 1 To support his diagnosis Buber e\·en resorts to a sin of my youth, committed nearly forty years ago, which consists in my once having perpetrated a poem. 4 In this poem I expressed a number of psycho-

'499

[Written 22 Feb. 1952 as a letter to the editor, published as "Religion und Psychologie" in Jf erkur (Stuttgart), VI: 5 (May 1952), 467-73, and reprinted as "Antwort an :1\.iartin Buber" in Gesam. Werke, XI, Anhang. The present translation was published in Spring, I973-l ~ [Hermann Keyserling (I 88o- I 946). "Begegnungen mit der Psychoanalyse," .\!erkur, IV: II (No\·. I950\, IISI-68.] 3 [;'Religion und modernes Denken," .\! erkur VI: 2 (Feb. I 952). Trans., "Religion and Modern Thinking,'' together with Buber's reply to Jung (in the same issue with Jung's reply, .\!erkur, \"!:5\, in Eclipse of God (I953\.] 4 [VII Sermones ad .Hortuos, by Basilides of Alexandria (n.d. [I916]\, pri,·ately printed. English trans. by H. G. BaynPs, pri,·ately printed I 925; reprinted in the 2nd edn. of .\ternaries, Dreams, Reflections, appendix.] 1

XII. PSYCHOLOGY .-\XD RELIGIOX

1502

1503

1504

logical aper(US in ''Gnostic .. style, because I was then studying the Gnostics with enthusiasm. ~Iy enthusiasm arose from the discoYery that they were apparently the first thinkers to concern themselves (after their fashion) with the contents of the collective unconscious. I had the poem printed under a pseudonym and gaYe a few copies to friends, little dreaming that it would one day bear witness against me as a heretic. I would like to point out to my critic that I haYe in my time been regarded not only as a Gnostic and its opposite, but also as a theist and an atheist, a mystic and a materialist. In this concert of contending opinions I do not wish to lay too much stress on what I consider myself to be, but will quote a judgment from a leading article in the British Medical journal (9 February 1952), a source that would seem to be aboYe suspicion. "Facts first and theories later is the keynote of Jung's work. He is an empiricist first and last." This Yiew meets with my approval. Anyone who does not know my work will certainly ask himself how it is that so many contrary opinions can be held about one and the same subject. The answer to this is that they are all thought up by "metaphysicians," that is, by people who for one reason or another think they know about unknowable things in the Beyond. I have never ventured to declare that such things do not exist; but neither ha\Âˇe I ventured to suppose that any statement of mine could in any way touch them or even represent them correctly. I Yery much doubt whether our conception of a thing is identical with the nature of the thing itself, and this for Yery obYious scientific reasons. But since \Âˇiews and opinions about metaphysical or religious subjects play a Yery great role in empirical psychology,:; I am obliged for practical reasons to work with concepts corresponding to them. In so doing I am aware that I am dealing with anthropomorphic ideas and not with actual gods and angels, although, thanks to their specific energy, such (archetypal) images behave so autonomously that one could describe them metaphorically as "psychic daimonia ... The fact that they are autonomous should be taken very seriously; first, from the theoretical standpoint, because it explains the dissociability of the psyche as well as actual dissociation, and second, from the practical one, because it forms the basis for a dialectical discussion between the ego and the unconsnous, which is one of the mainstays of the psychotherapeutic 5

Cf. G. Schmaltz, Ostliche Weisheit und u:estliche Psychotherapie ( 1951).

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A REPLY TO MARTIN BUBER

method. Anyone who has any knowledge of the structure of a neurosis will be aware that the pathogenic conflict arises from the counterposition of the unconscious relative to consciousness. The socalled "forces of the unconscious" are not intellectual concepts that can be arbitrarily manipulated, but dangerous antagonists which can, among other things, work frightful devastation in the economy of the personality. They are everything one could wish for or fear in a psychic 'Thou." The layman naturally thinks he is the victim of some obscure organic disease; but the theologian, who suspects it is the devil's work, is appreciably nearer to the psychological truth. I am afraid that Buber, having no psychiatric experience, fails to understand what I mean by the "reality of the psyche" and by the dialectical process of individuation. The fact is that the ego is confronted with psychic powers which from ancient times have borne sacred names, and because of these they have always been identified with metaphysical beings. Analysis of the unconscious has lcng since demonstrated the existence of these powers in the form of archetypal images which, be it noted, are not identical with the corresponding intellectual concepts. One can, of course, believe that the concepts of the conscious mind are, through the inspiration of the Holy Ghost, direct and correct representations of their metaphysical referent. But this conviction is possible only for one who already possesses the gift of faith. Unfortunately I cannot boast of this possession, for which reason I do not imagine that when I say something about an archangel I have thereby confirmed that a metaphysical fact. I have merely expressed an opinion about something that can be experienced, that is, about one of the very palpable "powers of the unconscious". These powers are numinous "types" -unconscious contents, processes, and dynamisms-and such types are, if one may so express it, immanent-transcendent. Since my sole means of cognition is experience I may not overstep its boundaries, and cannot therefore pretend to myself that my description coincides with the portrait of a real metaphysical archangel. What I have described is a psychic factor only, but one which exerts a considerable influence on the conscious mind. Thanks to its autonomy, it forms the counterposition to the subjective ego because it is a piece of the objective psyche. It can therefore be designated as a "Thou." For me its reality is amply attested by the truly diabolical deeds of our time: the six million murdered Jews, the uncounted victims of the slave labour camps in Russia, 66 5

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as well as the invention of the atom bomb, to name but a few examples of the darker side. But I ha\Âˇe also seen the other side which can be expressed by the words beauty, goodness, wisdom, grace. These experiences of the depths and heights of human nature justify the metaphorical use of the term "daimon." It should not be overlooked that what I am concerned with are psychic phenomena which can be proved empirically to be the bases of metaphysical concepts, and that when, for example, I speak of "God" I am unable to refer to anything beyond these demonstrable psychic models which, we have to admit, have shown themselves to be devastatingly real. To anyone who finds their reality incredible I would recommend a reflective tour through a lunatic asylum. The "reality of the psyche'' is my working hypothesis, and my principal acti\Âˇity consists in collecting factual rna !erial to describe and explain it. I have set up neither a system nor a general theory, but have merely formulated auxiliary concepts to serve me as tools, as is customary in every branch of science. If Buber misunderstands my empiricism as Gnosticism, it is up to him to prove that the facts I describe are nothing but inventions. If he should succeed in proving this with empirical material, then indeed I am a Gnostic. But in that case he will find himself in the uncomfortable position of having to dismiss all religious experiences as self-deception . .Meanwhile I am of the opinion that Buber's judgment has been led astray. This seems especially evident in his apparent inability to understand how an "autonomous psychic content" like the Godimage can burst upon the ego, and that such a confrontation is a living experience. It is certainly not the task of an empirical science to establish how far such a psychic content is dependent on and determined by the existence of a metaphysical deity. That is the concern of theology, revelation, and faith. :\'Iy critic does not seem to realize that when he himself talks about God, his statements are dependent firstly on his conscious and then on his unconscious assumptions. Of which metaphysical deity he is speaking I do not know. If he is an orthodox Jew he is speaking of a God to whom the incarnation in the year 1 has not yet been revealed. If he is a Christian, then his deity knows about the incarnation of which Yahweh still shows no sign. I do not doubt his conviction that he stands in a living relationship to a divine Thou, but now as before I am of the opinion that this relationship is primarily to an autonomous psychic content which is defined in one way by him and in another by the Pope. Consequently I do not permit

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RELIGION AND PSYCHOLOGY:

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1 5Â°9

1 5 10

A REPLY TO MARTIN BUBER

myself the least judgment as to whether and to what extent it has pleased a metaphysical deity to reveal himself to the devout Jew as he was before the incarnation, to the Church Fathers as the Trinity, to the Protestants as the one and only Saviour without co-redemptrix, and to the present Pope as a Saviour with co-redemptrix. Nor should one doubt that the dc\Âˇotees of other faiths, including Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, and so on, have the same living relationship to "God," or to Nirvana and Tao, as Buber has to the God-concept peculiar to himself. It is remarkable that he takes exception to my statement that God cannot exist apart from man and regards it as a transcendental assertion. Yet I say expressly that everything asserted about "God"' is a human statement, in other words a psychological one. For surely the image we have or make for ourselves of God is never detached from man? Can Buber show me where, apart from man, God has made an image of himself? How can such a thing be substantiated and by whom? Here, just for once, and as an exception, I shall indulge in transcendental speculation and even in "poetry": God has indeed made an inconceivably sublime and mysteriously contradictory image of himself, without the help of man, and implanted it in man's unconscious as an archetype, an J:pxi.rorrov </Jwc;, archetypal light : not in order that theologians of all times and places should he at one another's throats, but in order that the unpresumptuous man might glimpse an image, in the stillness of his soul, that is akin to him and is wrought of his own psychic substance. This image contains everything he will ever imagine concerning his gods or concerning the ground of his psyche. This archetype, whose existence is attested not only by ethnology but by the psychic experience of individuals, satisfies me completely. It is so humanly close and yet so strange and "other"; also, like all archetypes, it possesses the utmost determinative power with which it is absolutely necessary that we come to terms. The dialectical relationship to the autonomous contents of the collective unconscious is therefore, as I have said, an essential part of therapy. Buber is mistaken in thinking that I start with a "fundamentally Gnostic viewpoint" and then proceed to "elaborate" metaphysical assertions. One should not misconstrue the findings of empiricism as philosophical premises, for they are not obtained by deduction but from clinical and factual material. I would recommend him to read some autobiographies of the mentally ill, such as John Custance's Wisdom, Madness and Folly (1951), or D.P. Schreber's

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1511

JJ emoirs of Jfy Xen·ous Illness (first published 1903), which certainly do not proceed from Gnostic hypotheses any more than I do; or he might try an analysis of mythological material, such as the excellent work of Dr. Erich Neumann, his neighbour in Tel Aviv: Amor and Psyche (1952). My contention that the products of the unconscious are analogous and related to certain metaphysical ideas is founded on my professional experience. In this connection I would point out that I know quite a number of influential theologians, Catholics as well as Pro~estants, who ha\·e no difficulty in grasping my empirical standpoint. I therefore see no reason why I should take my method of exposition to be quite so misleading as Buber would have us believe. There is one misunderstanding which I would like to mention here because it comes up so often. This is the curious assumption that when a projection is withdrawn nothing more of the object remains. When I correct my mistaken opinion of a man I have not negated him and caused him to vanish; on the contrary, I see him more nearly as he is, and this can only benefit the relationship. So if I hold the view that all statements about God have their origin in the psyche and must therefore be distinguished from God as a metaphysical being, this is neither to deny God nor to put man in God's place. I frankly confess that it goes against the grain with me to think that the metaphysical God himself is speaking through everyone who quotes the Bible or ventilates his religious opinions. Faith is certainly a splendid thing if one has it, and knowledge by faith is perhaps more perfect than anything we can produce with our laboured and wheezing empiricism. The edifice of Christian dogma, for instance, undoubtedly stands on a much higher le\·el than the somewhat wild "philosophoumena" of the Gnostics. Dogmas are spiritual structures of supreme beauty, and they possess a wonderful meaning which I have sought to fathom in my fashion. Compared with them our scientific endeavors to devise models of the objective psyche are unsightly in the extreme. They are bound to earth and reality, full of contradictions, incomplete, logically and aesthetically unsatisfying. The empirical concepts of science and particularly of medical psvchology do not proceed from neat and seemly principles of thought, but are the outcome of our daily labours in the sloughs of ordinary human existence and human pain. They are essentially irrational, and the philosopher who criticizes them as though they were philosophical concepts tilts against windmills and gets into the greatest difficulties, as Buber does with

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the concept of the self. Empirical concepts are names for existing complexes of facts. Considering the fearful paradoxicality of human existence, it is quite understandable that the unconscious contains an equally paradoxical God-image which will not square at all with the beauty, sublimity, and purity of the dogmatic concept of God. The God of Job and of the 8gth Psalm is clearly a bit closer to reality, and his behaviour does not fit in badly with the God-image in the unconscious. Of course this image, with its :\nthropos symbolism, lends support to the idea of the incarnation. I do not feel responsible for the fact that the history of dogma has made some progress since the days of the Old Testament. This is not to preach a new religion, for to do that I would have to follow the old-established custom of appealing to a divine revelation. I am essentially a physician, whose business is with the sickness of man and his times, and with remedies that are as real as the suffering. Not only Buber, but every theologian who baulks at my odious psychology is at liberty to heal my patients with the word of God. I would welcome this experiment with open arms. But since the ecclesiastical cure of souls does not always produce the desired results, we doctors must do what we can, and at present we have no better standby than that modest "gnosis'' which the empirical method gives us. Or have any of my critics better advice to offer? As a doctor one finds oneself in an awkward position, because unfortunately one can accomplish nothing with that little word "ought." We cannot demand of our patients a faith which they reject because they do not understand it, or which does not suit them even though we may hold it ourselves. \\' e have to rely on the curative powers inherent in the patient's own nature, regardless of whether the ideas that emerge agree with any known creed or philosophy. l\1 y empirical material seems to include a bit of everything-it is an assortment of primitive, \\'estern, and Oriental ideas. There is scarcely any myth whose echoes are not heard, nor any heresy that has not contributed an occasional oddity. The deeper, collective layers of the human psyche must surely be of a like nature. Intellectuals and rationalists, happy in their established beliefs, will no doubt be horrified by this and will accuse me of reckless eclecticism, as though I had somehow invented the facts of man's nature and mental history and had compounded out of them a repulsive theosophical brew. Those who possess faith or prefer to talk like philosophers do not, of course, need to wrestle with the facts, hut 66g

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a doctor is not at liberty to dodge the grim realities of human nature. '5'3 It is inevitable that the adherents of traditional religious systems should find my formulations hard to understand. A Gnostic would not be at ~ll pleased with me, but would reproach me for having no cosmogony and for the cluelessness of my gnosis in regard to the happenings in the Pleroma. A Buddhist would complain that I was deluded by Maya, and a Taoist that I was too complicated. As for an orthodox Christian, he can hardly do otherwise than deplore the nonchalance and lack of respect with which I navigate through the empyrean of dogmatic ideas. I must, however, once more beg my unmerciful critics to remember that I start from facts for which I seek an interpretation.

ADDRESS AT THE PRESE:\'TATIO:\ OF THE JU:'\G CODEX 1 Mr. President, viri magnifici, Ladies and Gentlemen.' I5I4

I5 I 5

It gives me much pleasure to accept this precious gift in the name of our Institute. For this I thank you, and also for the surprising and undeserved honour you have done me in baptising the Codex with my name. I would like to thank Dr. Meier personally for his persistent and successful efforts to acquire the Codex, and for organizing this celebration. He has asked me to say something about the psychological significance of Gnostic texts. At present, unfortunately, I know only three of the treatises contained in the Codex. One of these is an important, so it seems, early Valentinian text that affords us some insight into the mentality of the second century A.D. It is called "The Gospel of Truth,"~ but it is less a gospel than a treatise explaining the Christian message, its purpose being to assimilate this strange and hardly understandable message to the Hellenistic-Egyptian world of thought. It is evident that the author was appealing to the intellectual understanding of his reader, as if in remembrance of the words: "We preach Christ crucified, unto the Jews a stumbling-block, and unto the Greeks foolishness" (I Cor. 1:23). For him Christ was primarily a light-bringer, who went forth from the Father in order to illuminate the stupidity, darkness, and unconsciousness of mankind. This deliverance from agnosia relates the text to the accounts which Hippolytus has left of the Gnostics, and of the Naassenes and Peratics in particular, in his Elenchos. 3 There we also find most of what I call the "phenomena of assimilation." They consisted partly of allegories and partly of genuine symbols, and their purpose was to shed light on the essentially metaphysical figure of Christ and make it more comprehensible to the mentality of that epoch. For the modern mind this accumulation of symbols, parables, and syno[Draft written for a convocation at the 'Gesellschaftshaus zum Ruden, Zurich, I5 Nov. 1953. For Jung's final version, see the Addenda. The Jung Codex is a Gnostic papyrus in Coptic found in I945 near the village of Nag Hamadi in Upper Egypt and acquired in 1952 for the C. G. Jung Institute.] ~[Published under the editorship of M. Malinine, H. C. Puech, and G. Quispel, EcÂˇangelium V eritatis (Zurich, I 956) .] 3 [Otherwise known as Philosophoumena, or The Refutation of All Heresies, trans. by F. Legge (I 92 I).] 1

XII. PSYCHOLOGY AKD RELIGIO~

nyms has just the opposite effect, since it only deepens the darkness and entangles the light-bringer in a network of barely intelligible analogies. It is not likely that the Gnostic attempts at elucidation met with much success in the pagan world, especially as the Church very soon opposed them and whenever possible suppressed them. Luckily during this process some of the best pieces (to judge by their content) were preserved for posterity, so that today we are in a position to see in what way the Christian message was taken up by the unconscious of that age. I 5I 6 These phenomena are naturally of especial significance for psychologists and psychiatrists, who are professionally concerned with the psychic background, and this is the reason why our Institute is so interested in acquiring and translating Gnostic texts. Although suppressed and forgotten, the process of assimilation that began with Gnosticism continued all through the ~Iiddle Ages, and it can still be obsenÂˇed in modern times whenever the individual consciousness is confronted with its own shadow, or the inferior part of the personality. This happens spontaneously in certain cases, whether they be normal or pathological. The general rule, however, is that modern man needs expert help to become conscious of his darkness, because in most cases he has long since forgotten this basic problem of Christianity: the moral and intellectual agnosia of the merely natural man. Christianity, considered as a psychological phenomenon, contributed a great deal to the development of consciousness, and wherever this dialectical process has not come to a standstill we find new evidence of assimilation. Even in medieval Judaism a parallel process took place over the centuries, independently of the Christian one, in the Kabbala. Its nearest analogy in the Christian sphere was philosophical alchemy, whose psychological affinities with Gnosticism can easily be demonstrated. I 5I 7 The urgent therapeutic necessity of confronting the patient with his own dark side is a continuation of the Christian development of consciousness and leads to phenomena of assimilation similar to those found in Gnosticism, the Kabbala, and Hermetic philosophy. Since comparison with these earlier historical stages is of the greatest importance in interpreting the modern phenomena, the discovery of authentic Gnostic texts is of the utmost practical value to us in our researches. These few hints must suffice to explain our interest in a Gnostic codex. A detailed account of these relationships may he found in a number of studies that have already been published.

LETTER TO PERE BRU:r\0 1 5 November I 953 Dear Fr. Bruno, 15 18 Your questions interested me extremely. You ask for information about the method to be followed in order to establish the existence of an archetype. Instead of a theoretical discourse, I propose to give you a practical demonstration of my method by trying to tell you what I think about that probably historical personage, Elijah. I 5I 9 If the tradition were concerned with a person characterized rather by individual and more or less unique traits, to whom few or no legends, miraculous deeds, and exploits or relations or parallels with mythological figures were attached, there would be no reason to suppose the presence of an archetype. If on the other hand the biography of the person concerned contains mythical motifs and parallels, and if posterity has added elements that are clearly mythological, then there is no longer any doubt that we are dealing with an archetype. I5 20 The prophet Elijah is a highly mythical person, though that does not prevent his being a historical one at the same time, like for example St. John the Baptist or even Jesus, the rabbi of Nazareth. I call the mythical attributes "phenomena of assimilation." (I have just published a study on the astrological assimilation of Christ as fish in my book A ion, I 951.) 1 5 21 There is no need to repeat to you the well-known Old Testament traditions. Let us rather glance at the Christian tradition in the New Testament and later. As a "hairy" man [2 Kings I:8] Elijah is analogous to St. John the Baptist [Mark I :6]. His calling of an apostle (Elisha), walking on the water, the discouragement (I Kings I 9: 4ff.) prefigure analogous incidents in the life of Christ, who is also interpreted as a reappearance of Elijah, and his saying [(Translated from the French by A.S.B.G. and J.A.P.) Published in Elie le prophete, ed. by Pere Bruno de Jesus-Marie, O.C.D., vol. II (Les Etudes Carmelitaines, Paris, 1956), pp. 1 g-1 8. Comments were supplied by Charles Baudouin, Rene Lafargue, and Father Bruno to form a chapter entitled "Puissance de ]'archetype," signed by the four. See also Jung's letter of 20 Nov. 1956 to Pere Bruno in Letters, ed. G. Adler, vol. 2.]

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on the cross: .. Eli, Eli . . . " as an invocation of Elijah. The name deri\Âˇes from El : = God). Chrysostom derives the name Elias [ = Elijah] from Helios: "quod sicut sol ex oceano emergens versus supremum coelus tendit.''~ At his birth he was hailed by angels. He was wrapped in fiery swaddling clothes and nourished by flames. He had two souls ( ! ) . (See J. Fr. Mieg, De raptu Eliae, I 66o, and Schulinus, De Elia corvorum alumna, I 718.) In Roman days, there was a pagan sanctuary on Carmel, which seems to have consisted only of an altar (Tacitus, Hist. II, 78, "tantum ara et reverentia'') .3 Yespasian is said to have obtained an oracle in this sanctuary. lamblichus ( T"ita Pythagorica III, I 5) says that the mountain 1s sacred and represents a taboo area and that Pythagoras often stayed in the sacred solitude of Carmel. It is possible that the Druses have preserved in their sanctuary on the mountain the place of the altar of Elijah. 1522 In Pirke Eliezer 3 I, Elijah is the incarnation of an eternal soulsubstance and is of the same nature as the angels. It was his spirit that called up the ram which was substituted for Isaac. He wears the ram's skin as a girdle or apron. He is present at the circumcision as the "Angel of the Covenant" ( Pirke Eliezer 29). Even in our own day, a special chair is reserved for Elijah at the rite of circumcision, and at the feast of the Passover a goblet of wine is placed on the table and the head of the family opens the door to invite Elijah to enter and share the feast. 1523 Legend calls him "violent," "quarrelsome,'' and "merciless." It \\"as because of these unfavourable qualities that he had to yield up his office of prophet to Elisha. He caused the sun to stand still during the sacrifice of Carmel. In the time to come he will awaken the dead. The boy he raised to life was Jonah (later swallowed by the monster). Since his ascension to heaven he is among the angels, and he hovers over the earth like an eagle spying out the secrets of men. 1524 He is also considered to be a parallel of Moses. They have in common the murder of a man, their flight, being nourished by a woman, the vision of God, the calling together of the people by a mountain. Elijah and ~loses were present at the transfiguration on Tabor. 1525 Elijah helped Rabbi Meir by transforming himself into a hetaira. He is generally a helper in all sorts of human difficulties (healing even the toothache, enriching the poor, bringing leaves from ~

["which extends toward the highest heaven as the sun rising from the ocean."] :; ["only an altar and the worship (of the god)"']

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paradise, building magic palaces, etc.) He also plays tricks by making people lose their purses. He slays on the spot a man who does not pray properly. Thus Elijah is identical with the figure of Khadir or Khidr in Islamic tradition. 4 When, yielding to the prayer of Rabbi Hiyya, he reveals the secret of resurrecting the dead, the angels intercede, carry the rabbi off, and give him a good hiding with fiery whips. The village dogs bark joyously when Elijah appears (in disguise). Three days before the appearing of the Messiah, Elijah will manifest himself on the mountains of Israel. 1 52 6 According to Moses ben Leon, Elijah belongs to the category of angels who recommended the creation of man. Moses Cordovero compares him to Enoch, but whereas the latter's body is consumed hy fire, Elijah retains his earthly form so as to be ready to appear again. His body descends from the Tree of Life. Since he was not dead, he \vas supposed to dwell invisibly on Mount Carmel; for example, the Shunamite went to look for him and found him at Carmel (II Kings 4:25). (For the Jewish tradition, see Strack and Billerbeck, Kommentar zum N.T., vol. IV, part 2, pp. 764ff. Also Encyclopedia ]udaica, 1930, vol. 6.) In Hasidic tradition, Elijah was endowed with the collective soul of Israel. Every male child, when presented for the covenant with God, receives a part of the soul of Elijah and after attaining adult age and developing this soul, Elijah appears to him. Abraham ibn Ezra of Toledo is said to have been unable to develop this soul completely. (It is evident that Elijah represents both the collective unconscious and the "self," atman, purusha, of man. It is a question of the individuation process. See M. Buber, Die Erzahlungen der Chassidim ( 1949), p. 402. 5 M. Buber is one of my relentless adversaries. He has not understood even what he wrote himself!). 6 1527 Islamic tradition depends in the first place on the Jewish commentaries. Ilyas (Elijah) has received from God power to control the rain. He causes a great drought. He ascends to heaven on a fiery horse and God transforms him into a half-human angel ( according to al-Tabari). In the Koran, Sura 18, 64ff., he is replaced by al-Khadir. (In a Jewish legend it is Elijah who travels with Joshua ben Levi, in the Koran it is al-Khadir with Joshua ben 1\un.) Ordinarily, Ilyas and al-Khadir are immortal twins. They spend Ramadan at Jerusalem every year and afterwards they take I [Cf. "Concerning Rebirth" (C.W., vol. g, i), pars. 24off.] "[Buber, Tales of the Hasidim, vol. I: "Elijah," by Elimelekh of Lizhensk, p. 257-l G [Cf. supra, "Reply to Buber," pars. 1499fl.]

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part in the pilgrimage to ;..Iecca without being recognized. Ilyas is identified with Enoch and Idris \ = Hermes Trismegistus). Later Ilyas and al-Khadir are identified with St. George : ~ee Encyclopedia of Islam, Leiden and Leipzig, I 913). 15 2 8 In medieval Christian tradition, Elijah continues to haunt the imagination. For example, it is specially fascinated by his ascent to heaYen, \vhich is frequently represented. In illuminated MSS, the model is followed of the ;..Iithraic representation of the ascent of Sol im·iting Mithras to join him in the fiery chariot. 'See Bousset, ··Die Himmelsreise der Seele,"' Arch. f. Relig. 1.ciss., I90I, IY, p. I 6off., Cumont, Textes et monuments, I, p. q8, fig. 1 1.) Tertullian ; De praescriptione hereticorum 40) says of ;..Iithras: ''imaginem resurrectionis inducit. ··; The ;..Iandaean hero-sa,·iour Saoshyant, the next to come in the series of millenniary sa,·iours or prophets, is fused with ;..Iithras, as is the latter with Idris (Hermes, ;..Iercurius; see Dussaud, ".:\"otes de myth. syrienne,'' pp. 23ff.. ' In these circumstances, it is not very surpnsmg that Eiijah should become ''Helyas Artista'" in medieYal alchemy (e.g., Dorn, '·De transmut. met.,'' Theatr. chenz., I 602, I, p. 6 I o: '·usque in adYentum Heliae .-\rtistae quo tempore nihil tam occultum quod non revelabitur ··). 9 This passage has its origin in the treatise "De tinctura physicorum .. of Paracelsus. (See also Heh·etius, T'itulus aureus, 166i: Glauber, De Elia Artista, 1668, and Kopp, Die Alchemie, 1886, I, pp. 25off.f 0 7

["he offers an image of the resurrection."] '[Rene Dussaud . .\"otes du mythologie syrienne (Paris. 1903-5 .] ~[··until the coming of Helyas Artista, in whose time all that is hidden will be revealed"] In [Following this letter. Bruno quoted another lettrr from Jung of 22 Dec. 1954 ( misdated by Bruno 1953: here trans. by J.A. P. i : "So far as concerns the Helias of the alchemists. let me remind you of the text by Gerardus Dorneus [quoted as above]. Instead of saying 'usque ad adventum Christi,' the alchemist prefers an earlier form of the anthropos, Elijah. who is one of the four persons raised to heaven "·ith their bodies: Enoch. Elijah, Christ. and ~!ary. "The reason why the alchemist preferred Elijah. a figure or condition prior to Christ, is probably because in Paracelsus Elijah, like Enoch, belongs among the 'Enochdiani and Heliezati,' that is, among those whose bodies are capable of longevity (up to a thousand years i or el>e incorruptible, like the bodies of Enoch and Elijah. The prolongation of life was a ,·ery special interest of the master's. whereas the premature death of Christ did not seem interesting to him. (Certainly Paracelsus wrged on the scientific materialism of the eighteenth century! Cf. Theophrasti Paracelsi Tract. De Vita Longa, edit. by Adam v. Bodenstein. 1562 .I "Je"·ish tradition says that Elijah remained in the corporpa) state so as

LETTER TO PERE BR~NO 152 9

It is unnecessary to continue this long list of phenomena of assimilation which follow without interruption, so to speak, from the remotest times to our own day. This proves irrefutably that Elijah is a living archetype. In psychology, we call it a constellated archetype, that is to say one that is more or less generally active, giving birth to new forms of assimilation. One of these phenomena was the choice of Carmel for the foundation of the first convent in the twelfth century. The mountain had long been a numinous place as the seat of the Canaanite deities Baal and Astarte. ( Cf. the duality of Elijah, the transformation into a hetaira.) YHWH supplants them as inhabitant of the sacred place (Eli-yah like Khadir a kind of personification of YH\\"H or Allah. Cf. the temperament and the fire of the prophet!). The numinous inhabitant of Carmel is chosen as the patron of the order. The choice is curious and unprecedented. According to the empirical rule, an archetype becomes active and chooses itself when a certain lack in the conscious sphere calls for a compensation on the part of the unconscious. \Vhat is lacking on the conscious side is the immediate relation with God: in so far as Elijah is an angelic being fortified with divine power, having the magic name of Eli-YHWH, delivered from corruptibility, omniscient and omnipresent, he represents the ideal compensation not only for Christians but for Jews and ~Ioslems also. He is the typical 8e6r; avOpwrror;, more human than Christ inasmuch as he is begotten and born in peccatum originate, and more universal in that he included ewn the pre-Yahwist pagan deities like Baal, El-Elyon, I\Iithra<s, ~Iercurius, and the personification of Allah, al-Khadir. to be visible to mortal eyes during his peregrinations on earth. After reading a little book I had just written (which had to do among other things with the archetypal nature of Yahweh as revealed in the Book of Job), an intellectual and agnostic (or materialistic) Jew had a dream which was sent to me. In his dream he was back in a concentration camp (where he had actually been during the war). Suddenly he perceived an extraordinarily large eagle circling 0\Âˇer the camp. He felt spied upon and watched by the menacing bird and, in a highly emotional state, wanted to defend himself by attacking it. To this end, he was looking for a combat plane with which to bring the animal down. "Thanks to my book, he had realized that in reality it is possible to abolish the idea of a god by means of reason, yet not possible to free oneself from it when one is dealing with an archetype innate in the structure of the psyche itself. (This dream is discussed in "The Philosophical Tree" (C.W. 13]. pars. 466ff.) Elijah in the shape of an eagle represents the eye of Yahweh which sees all-'oculi Dei qui discurrent in universam terram' (Zach. 4: 10). The fear of God had seized him. Thus the theriomorphic attribute of the ancient prophet still plays its part in our time."]

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I ha\"e already said that the archetype "gets itself chosen., rather than is deliberately chosen. I prefer this way of putting it because it is almost the rule that one follows unconsciously the attraction and suggestion of the archetype. I think that the legend of Elijah and the unique atmosphere of ~fount Carmel exercised an influence from which the founder of the order could no more withdraw himself than could the Druses, the Romans, Jews, Canaanites, or Phoenicians. It was not only the place which fa,·oured the choice for the adoption of a compensatory figure but the time. The twelfth century and the beginning of the thirteenth were just the period which acti\"ated the spiritual mo\"ements brought into being by the new aeon which began with the eleventh century. 11 These were the days of Joachim of flora and the Brethren of the Free Spirit, of .-\lbertus ~Iagnus and Roger Bacon, of the beginning of Latin alchemy and of the natural sciences and also of a feminine religious symbol. the Holy Grail. l For the significance of the year 1000, 5-~e my Aion. cbs. YI and X. 3·) To complete the establishment of a li\"ing archetype, the historical proofs do not wholly suffice, since one can explain the historical documentation by tradition (whose beginnings, howe\"er, always remain unexplained). That the archetype also manifests itself spontaneously outside tradition needs to be added to the C\"idence. God as collectiYe soul. as ~pirit of nature, eternally renewed, incorruptible, archetype of the spirit e\"en in the form of the 'Trickster," pagan di,·inity, is encountered in ancient and medie\·al alchemy haYing nothing to do with the local tradition of Carmel. The Deus absconditus of alchemy has the same compensating function as the figure of Elijah. Lastly-as is little known-the psychology of alchemy has become comprehensible to us thanks to the fact that we obsen·e analogous compensations in pathological and normal indi\·iduals in modern time~. In calling themseh·es .. atheists" or "agnostics,·· people &;satisfied with the Christian tradition are not being merelY negati,·e. In many cases it is easy to obsen·e the phenomenon of the "compensa,ing God." as I ha\·e demonstrated in my most recent works. I hope. dear Fr. Bruno. that I haYe shown you the way an archetype i-. established and ha\·e answered your question concerning the choice of the archetype. Yours sincerely, C. G. ]uxc "~Cf.

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Kiisnac ht, 2 7 l\Iarch I 954 Dear Sir, It was very kind of you to send me your booklet~ on the reception and action of the Holy Spirit. I have read it with special interest since the subject of the Holy Spirit seems to me one of current importance. I remember that the former Archbishop of York, Dr. Temple, admitted, in com路ersation with me, that the Church has not done all that it might to develop the idea of the Holy Spirit. It is not difficult to see why this is so, for To 7TVfVfUX 7TVfi o7Tov 0{A.ft 3- a fact which an institution may find very incom路enient! In the course of reading your little book a number of questions and thoughts have occurred to me, which I set out below, since my reactions may perhaps be of some interest to you. I quite agree with your view that one pauses before entrusting oneself to the "unforeseeable action., of the Holy Spirit. One feels afraid of it, not, I think, without good reason. Since there is a marked difference between the God of the Old Testament and the God of the New, a definition is desirable. You nowhere explain your idea of God. Which God have you in mind: The New Testament God, or the Old? The latter is a paradox; good and demonlike, just and unjust at the same time, while the God of the New Testament is by definition perfect, good, the Summum Bonum even, without any element of the dark or the demon in him. But if you identify these two Gods, different as they are, the fear and resistance one feels in entrusting oneself unconditionally to the Holy Spirit are easy to understand. The divine action is so unforeseeable that it may weH be really disastrous. That being so, the prudence of the serpent counsels us not to approach the Holy Spirit too closely. If, on the other hand, it is the New Testament God you have in mind, one can be absolutely certain that the risk is more apparent 1

[(Translated from the French by A.S.B.G.) See Jung's letters of I8 Jan. and 29 June 1955 to Pere William Lachat in Letters, ed. G. Adler. \路ol. 2.] 2 [La Reception et l'action du Saint-Esprit dans Ia ;路ie personnelle et communautaire (Neuchatel, I 953) .] 3 ['The spirit bloweth where it Iisteth." John 3: 8.]

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than real since the end will always be good. In that event the experiment loses its venturesome character; it is not really dangerous. It is then merely foolish not to gi\'e oneself up entirely to the action of the Hoi~· Spirit. Rather one should seek him day by da~·, and one will easily lay hold of him, as :\Ir. Horton• assures us. In the absence of a formal statement on your part, I assume that you identify the two Gods. In that case the Holy Spirit would not be easy to apprehend; it would even be highly dangerous to attract the di,·ine attention by specially pious behaviour (as in the case of Job and some others). In the Old Testament Satan still has the Father's ear, and can influence him even against the righteous. The Old Testament furnishes us with quite a number of instances of this kind, and they warn us to be very careful when we are dealing with the Holy Spirit. The man who is not particularly bold and adventurous will do well to bear these examples in mind and to thank God that the Holy Spirit does not concern himself with us overmuch. One feels much safer under the shadow of the Church, which sen·es as a fortress to protect us against God and his Spirit. It is very comforting to be assured by the Catholic Church that it ''possesses'' the Spirit, who assists regularly at its rites. Then one knows that he is well chained up. Protestantism is no less reassuring in that it represents the Spirit to us as something to be sought for, to be easily "drunk,'' even to be possessed. We get the impression that he is something passi,·e, "·hich cannot budge without us. He has lost his dangerous qualities. his fire, his autonomy, his power. He is represented as an innocuous. passive, and purely beneficent element, so that to be afraid of him would seem just stupid. This characterization of the Holy Spirit lea,·es out of account the terrors of YH\\'H. It does not tell us what the Holy Spirit is, since it has failed to explain to us clearly what it has done with the Deus absronditus. :\!bert Schweitzer nai\elv informs us that he takes the side of the ethical God and avoids the absconditus, as if a mortal man had the abilitY to hide himself when faced with an almighty God or to take the other, less risky side. God can implicate him in unrighteousness whenenr he chooses. I also fail to find a definition of Christ; one does not know whether he is identical with the Holy Spirit, or different from him. £,·eryone talk<- about Christ; but who is this Christ? \\'hen talking to a Catholic or .\n~lican priest. I am in no doubt. But when I • [Cnidentified.]

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am talking to a pastor of the Reformed Church, it may be that Christ is the Second Person of the Trinity and God in his entirety, or a divine man (the "supreme authority," as Schweitzer has it: which doesn't go too well with the error of the parousia), or one of those great founders of ethical systems like Pythagoras, Confucius, and so on. It is the same with the idea of God. What is l\brtin Buber talking about when he discloses to us his intimate relations with "God"? YHWH? The olden Trinity, or the modern Trinity, which has become something more like a Quaternity since the Sponsa has been received into the Thalamus?" Or the rather misty God of Protestantism? Do you think that everyone who says that he is surrendering himself to Christ has really surrendered himself to Christ? lsn't it more likely that he has surrendered himself to the image of Christ which he has made for himself, or to that of God the Father or the Holy Spirit? Are they all the same Christthe Christ of the Synoptics, of the Exercitia S piritualia, of a mystic of Mount Athos, of Count Zinzendorf,G of the hundred sects, of Caux~ and Rudolf Steiner, and-last but not least-of St. Paul? Do you really believe that anyone, be he who he may, can bring about the real presence of one of the Sacred Persons by an earnest utterance of their name? I can be certain only that someone has called up a psychic image, but it is impossible for me to confirm the real presence of the Being e\Âˇoked. It is neither for us nor for others to decide who has been invoked by the holy name and to whom one has surrendered oneself. Has it not happened that the invocation of the Holy Spirit has brought the devil on the scene? What are invoked are in the first place images, and that is why images have a special importance. I do not for a moment deny that the deep emotion of a true prayer may reach transcendence, but it is above our heads. There would not even be any transcendence if our images and metaphors were more than anthropomorphism and the words themselves had a magical effect. The Catholic Church protects itself against this insinuation expressis verbis, insisting on its teaching that God cannot go back on his own institutions. He is morally obliged to maintain them by his Holy Spirit or his '[Apostolic Constitution ("Munificentissimus Deus") of Pius XII ( 1950), sec. 33: " . . . on this day the Virgin Mother was taken up to her heavenly bridal-chamber." Cf. "Answer to Job" (C.W., vol. 11 ), par. 743, n. 4.] 6 [Count Nikolaus LudÂˇwig von Zinzendorf ( 1 700-60), founder of the Herrnhuter Brudergemeinde, a community of Moravian Brethren.] ; [Caux-sur-Montreux, Switzerland, a conference centre of the Moral Re-Armament movement. A World Assembly was held there in '949-l

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grace ..-\II theological preaching is a mythologem, a series of archetypal images intended to give a more or less exact description of the unimaginable transcendence. It is a paradox, but it is justified. The totality of these archetype3 corresponds to what I have called the collectic·e unconscious. We are concerned here with empirical facts, as I hm.·e proved. (Incidentally, you don't seem to be well informed about either the nature of the unconscious or my psychology. The idea that the unconscious is the abyss of all the horrors is a bit out of date. The collecti,·e unconscious is neutral; it is only nature, both spiritual and chthonic. To impute to my psychology the idea that the Holy Spirit is "only a projection of the human soul'' is false. He is a transcendental fact which presents itself to J', or are us under the guise of an archetypal image (e.g. ~ we to believe that he is really ''breathed forth·· by the Father and the Son?). There is no guarantee that this image corresponds exactly to the transcendental entity. The unconscious is ambivalent; it can produce both good and evil effects. So the image of God also has two sides, like YHWH or the God of Clement of Rome with two hands; the right is Christ, the left Satan, and it is with these two hands that he rules the world. 9 Nicholas of Cusa calls God a complexio oppositorum (naturally under the apotropaic condition of the pril.-·atio bani!). YHWH's paradoxical qualities are continued in the Xew Testament. In these circumstances it becomes very difficult to know what to make of prayer. Can we address our prayer to the good God to the exclusion of the demon, as Schweitzer recommends? Have we the power of dissociating God like the countrywoman who said to the child Jesus, when he interrupted her prayer to the Virgin: ''Shhh, child, I'm talking to your mother"? Can '"e really put on one side the God who is dangerous to us? Do we belie,·e that God is so powerless that '"e can say to him: "Get out, I'm talking to your better half?" Or can we ignore the absconditus? Schweitzer im·ites us to do just this; we're going to have our bathe in the river, and never mind the crocodiles. One can, it seems, brush them aside. Who is there who can produce this "simple faith''? Like God, then, the unconscious has two aspects; one good, favourable, beneficent, the other evil, malevolent, disastrous. The unconscious is the immediate source of our religious experiences. This psychic nature of all experience does not mean that the tran, [Lacuna in the file copy of the letter.) [Cf. A ion, C. W., mi. g, ii, pars. ggff.]

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scendental realities are also psychic; the physicist does not believe that the transcendental reality represented by his psychic model is also psychic. He calls it matter, and in the same way the psychologist in no wise attributes a psychic nature to his images or archetypes. He calls them "psychoids" 10 and is convinced that they represent transcendental realities. He even knows of "simple faith" as that conviction which one cannot avoid. It is vain to seek for it; it comes when it wills, for it is the gift of the Holy Spirit. There is only one divine spirit-an immediate presence, often terrifying and in no degree subject to our choice. There is no guarantee that it may not just as well be the devil, as happened to St. Ignatius Loyola in his vision of the serpens oculatus, interpreted at first as Christ or God and later as the deviP 1 Nicholas of Fli.ie had his terrifying vision of the absconditus, and transformed it later into the kindly Trinity of the parish church of Sachseln. 1 ~ Surrender to God is a formidable adventure, and as "simple" as any situation over which man has no control. He who can risk himself wholly to it finds himself directly in the hands of God, and is there confronted with a situation which makes "simple faith" a vital necessity; in other words, the situation becomes so full of risk or overtly dangerous that the deepest instincts are aroused. An experience of this kind is always numinous, for it unites all aspects of totality. All this is wonderfully expressed in Christian religious symbolism: the divine will incarnate in Christ urges towards the fatal issue, the catastrophe followed by the fact or hope of resurrection, while Christian faith insists on the deadly danger of the adventure; but the Churches assure us that God protects us against all danger and especially against the fatality of our character. Instead of taking up our cross, we are told to cast it on Christ. He will take on the burden of our anguish and we can enjoy our "simple faith" at Caux. We take flight into the Christian collectivity where we can forget even the will of God, for in society we lose the feeling of personal responsibility and can swim with the current. One feels safe in the multitude, and the Church does everything to reassure us against the fear of God, as if it did not believe that He could bring about a serious situation. On the other hand psychology is painted as black as possible, because it teaches, in full agreement 10

[Cf. Mysterium Coniunctionis, C.W., vol. 14, pars. 786f.] [Cf. "On the Nature of the Psyche" (C. W., vol. 8), par. 395 .) 12 [Cf. "Brother Klaus" (C.W., vol. I I) and "Archetypes of the Collective Unconscious" (C.W., vol. g, i), pars. I2ff.) 11

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with the Christian creed, that no man can ascend unless he has first descended ..-\ professor of theology once accused me publicly that "in flagrant contradiction to the \vords of Christ'' I had criticized as childish the man who remains an infant retaining his early beliefs. I had to remind him of the fact that Christ neYer said "remain children·· but "become like children ... This is one small example of the way in which Christian experience is falsified; it is prettied up, its sombre aspects are denied, its dangers are hidden. But the action of the Holy Spirit does not meet us in the atmosphere of a normal, bourgeois (or proletarian!), sheltered, regular life, but only in the insecurity outside the human economy, in the infinite spaces where one is alone with the providentia Dei. We must never forget that Christ was an innO\·ator and reYolutionary, executed with criminals. The reformers and great religious geniuses were heretics. It is there that you find the footprints of the Holy Spirit, and no one asks for him or receiYes him without having to pay a high price. The price is so high that no one today would dare to suggest that he possesses or is possessed by the Holy Spirit, or he would be too close to the psychiatric clinic. The danger of making oneself ridiculous is too real, not to mention the risk of offending our real god: respectability. There one enn becomes ,·ery strict, and it would not be at all allowable for God and his Spirit to permit themseh·es to give advice or orders as in the Old Testament. Certainly everyone would lay his irregularities to the account of the unconscious. One would say: God is faithful, he does not forsake us, God does not lie, he will keep his word, and so on. \\" e know it isn·t true, but we go on repeating these lies ad infinitum. It is quite understandable that we should seek to hold the truth at arm's length, because it seems impossible to give oneself up to a God who doesn't e,·en respect his own laws when he falls ,·ictim to one of his fits of rage or forgets his solemn oath. When I allow myself to mention these well-attested facts the theologians accuse me of blasphemy, unwilling as they are to admit the ambinlence of the divine nature, the demonic character of the God of the Bible and e\·en of the Christian God. \\"hv was that cruel immolation of the Son neces~ary if the anger of the "deus ultionum" is not hard to appease? One doesn't notice much of the Father's goodness and lO\·e during the tragic end of his Son. True, we ought to abandon ourseh·es to the divine will as much as we can, but admit that to do so is difficult and dangerous, so dangerous indeed that I would not dare to ad,·ise one of my clients

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1 54 2

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to "take., the Holy Spirit or to abandon himself to him until I had first made him realize the risks of such an enterprise. Permit me here to make a fev.Âˇ comments. On pp. I d.: The Holy Spirit is to be feared. He is revolutionary especially in religious matters (not at all "perhaps even religious, .. p. I I bottom). Ah, yes, one does well to refuse the Holy Spirit, because people would like to palm him off on us without telling us what this sacred fire is which killeth and maketh to liw. One may get through a battle without being \Vounded, but there are some unfortunates who do not know how to avoid either mutilation or death. Perhaps one is among their number. One can hardly take the risk of that without the most convincing necessity. It is quite normal and reasonable to refuse oneself to the Holy Spirit. Has 1\I. Boegner's 13 life been turned upside down? Has he taken the risk of breaking with convention (e.g., eating with Gentiles when one is an orthodox Jew, or even better with women of doubtful reputation), or been immersed in darkness like Hosea, making himself ridiculous, overturning the traditional order, etc.? It is deeds that are needed, not words. p. I 3Âˇ It is very civil to !'ay that the Holy Spirit is "uncomfortable and sometimes upsetting, .. but very characteristic. p. I 6. It is clear that the Holy Spirit is concerned in the long run with the collectivity ( ecclesia), but in the first place with the individual, and to create him he isolates him from his environment, just as Christ himself was thought mad by his own family. p. I g. The Holy Spirit, "'the accredited bearer of the holiness of God." But who will recognize him as such? Everyone will certainly say that he is drunk or a heretic or mad. To the description "bearer of the holiness" needs to be added the holiness \vhich God himself sometimes sets on one side ( Ps. 8g) . p. 2 1. It is no use for 1\fr. Horton tc belie,Âˇe that receiving the Holy Spirit is quite a ~imple business. It is so to the degree that we do not realize what is at issue. \Ve are surrendering ourselves to a Spirit with two aspects. That is why we are not particularly ready to "drink'' of him, or to "thirst" for him. We hope rather that God is going to pass us by, that we are protected against his injustice and his violence. Granted, the New Testament speaks otherwise, but when we get to the :\pocalypse the style changes remarkably and approximates to that of older times. Christ's kingdom has been provisional; the world is left thereafter for another aeon to .\ntichrist and to all the horrors that can he envisaged hy a pitiless u [L"nidentified.]

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and loveless imagination. This witness in favour of the god with two faces represents the last and tragic chapter of the New Testament which would like to have set up a god exclusively good and made only of love. This Apocalypse-was it a frightful gaffe on the part of those Fathers who drew up the canon? I don't think so. They were still too close to the hard reality of things and of religious traditions to share our mawkish interpretations and prettily falsified opinions. 1546 p. 23. "Surrender without the least reserve." \Vould Mr. Horton advise us to cross the Avenue de !'Opera blindfold? His belief in the good God is so strong that he has forgotten the fear of God. For }.lr. Horton God is dangerous no longer. But in that casewhat is the Apocalypse all about? He asks nevertheless, "To what interior dynamism is one surrendering oneself, natural or supernatural?" When he says, "I surrender myself wholly to God," how does he know what is "whole"? Our wholeness is an unconscious fact, whose extent we cannot establish. God alone can judge of human wholeness. We can only say humbly: "As wholly as possible." 1 547 There is no guarantee that it is really God when we say "god." It is perhaps a word concealing a demon or a void, or it is an act of grace coincident with our prayer. 1 548 This total surrender is disturbing. Nearly twenty years ago I gave a course at the Ecole Polytechnique Suisse for two semesters on the Exercitia Spiritualia of St. Ignatius. 14 On that occasion I received a profound impression of this total surrender, in relation to which one never knows whether one is dealing with sanctity or with spiritual pride. One sees too that the god to whom one surrenders oneself is a clear and well-defined prescription given by the director of the Exercises. This is particularly evident in the part called the "colloquium," where there is only one who speaks, and that is the initiand. One asks oneself what God or Christ would say if it were a real dialogue, but no one expects God to reply. 1 549 p. 26. The identity of Christ with the Holy Spirit seems to me to be questionable, since Christ made a very clear distinction between himself and the paraclete, even if the latter's function resembles Christ's. The near-identity of the Holy Spirit with Christ in St. John's Gospel is characteristic of the evangelist's Gnosticism. [Lectures at the Federal Polytechnic Institute (ETH), Zurich, June 1939 to March 1940. Privately issued.]

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LETTER TO PERE L\CH.-\ T

It seems to me important to insist on the chronological sequence of the Three Persons, for there is an evolution in three stages: r. The Father. The opposites not yet differentiated; Satan is still numbered among the "sons of God." Christ then is only hinted at. 2. God is incarnated as the "Son of ~Ian." Satan has fallen from hea,·en. He 1s the other "son." The opposites are differentiated. 3· The Holy Spirit is One, his prototype is the Ruach Elohim, an emanation, an active principle, which proceeds (as quintessence; a Patre Filioque. Inasmuch as he proceeds also from the Son he is different from the Ruach Elohim, who represents the active principle of Yahweh (not incarnate, with only angels in place of a son). The angels are called "sons," they are not begotten and there is no mother of the angels. Christ on the other hand shares in human nature, he is even man by definition. In this case it is evident that the Holy Spirit proceeding from the Son does not arise from the divine nature only, that is, from the second Person, but also from the human nature. Thanks to this fact, human nature is included in the mystery of the Trinity. l\Ian forms part of it. 1 55° This "human nature" is only figuratively human, for it is exempt from original sin. This makes the "human" element definitely doubtful inasmuch as man without exception, save for Christ and his mother, is begotten and born bearing the stamp of the macula peccati. That is why Christ and his mother enjoy a nature divine rather than human. For the Protestant there is no reason to think of ~Iary as a goddess. Thus he can easily admit that on his mother's side Christ was contaminated by original sin; this makes him all the more human, at least so far as the filioque of the Protestant confession does not exclude the true man from the "human'' nature of Christ. On the other hand it becomes e,·ident that the Holy Spirit necessarily proceeds from the two natures of Christ, not only from the God in him, but also from the man in him. 1 55 1 There were nry good reasons why the Catholic Church has carefully purified Christ and his mother from all contamination by the peccatum originate. Protestantism \vas more courageous, even daring or-perhaps?-more obli,·ious of the consequences, in not denying-expressis verbis-the human nature (in part) of Christ and (wholly) of his mother. Thus the ordinary man became a source of the Holy Spirit, though certainly not the only one. It is like lightning, which issues not only from the clouds hut also

687

XII. PSYCHOLOGY AND RELIGIOX

from the peaks of the mountains. This fact signifies the continued and progressi,·e di,·ine incarnation. Thus man is recei\·ed and integrated into the diYine drama. He seems destined to play a decisive part in it; that is why he must receive the Holy Spirit. I look upon the recei,·ing of the Holy Spirit as a highly re,·olutionary fact which cannot take place until the ambivalent nature of the Father is recognized. If God is the summum bonum, the incarnation makes no sense, for a good god could neyer produce such hate and anger that his only son had to he sacrificed to appease it. .-\ ~Iidrash says that the Shofar is still sounded on the Day of .-\tonement to remind YHWH of his act of injustice towards Abraham (by compelling him to slay Isaac) and to prennt him from repeating it. A conscientious clarification of the idea of God would haYe consequences as upsetting as they are necessary. They would be indispensable for an interior de\'elopment of the trinitarian drama and of the role of the Holy Spirit. The Spirit is destined to be incarnate in man or to choose him as a transitory dwelling-place. ··x on habet nomen proprium, .. says St. Thomas;,-, because he will receiYe the name of man. That is why he must not be identified with Christ. We cannot receiYe the Holy Spirit unless \Ve ha,·e accepted our own indi,·idual life as Christ accepted his. Thus we become the "sons of god" fated to experience the conflict of the di,·ine opposite~, represented by the crucifixion. 1 55 2 ~Ian seems indispensable to the di,·ine drama. \\' e shall understand this role of man's better if we consider the paradoxical nature of the Father. .-\s the Apocalypse has alluded to it ( evangelium aeternum) and Joachim of Flora 1 '' has expressed it, the Son would seem to be the intermediary between the Father and the Holy Spirit. We could repeat what Origen said of the Three Persons, that the Father is the greatest and the Holy Spirit the least. This is true inasmuch as the Father by descending from the cosmic immensity became the least by incarnating himself within the narrow bounds of the human soul (cult of the child-god, .-\ngelus Silesius). Doubtless the presence of the Holy Spirit enlarges human nature by di,·ine attributes. Human nature is the di,·ine \'esse! and as such the union of the Three. This results in a kind of quaternity which always signifies totality, while the triad is rather a process, but ne,·er the natural diYision of the circle, the natural symbol of wholeness. The quaternity as union of the Three seems to be aimed at hy the 1

~· ["He has no proper name." Summa theologica, I, xx\·i. art. I.] '''[The "eyerJasting gospel" in Rev. I4:i is "Fear God." For Joachim's view, see A ion. pars. I 3 jff.j

688

LETTER TO PERE LACHAT

Assumption of Mary. This dogma adds the feminine element to the masculine Trinity, the terrestrial element (virgo terra!) to the spiritual, and thus sinful man to the Godhead. For ~1ary in her character of omnium gratiarum mediatrix intercedes for the sinner before the judge of the world. (She is his "paraclete.") She is 4>tA.av8pwrro<; like her prefiguration, the Sophia of the Old Testament.1' Protestant critics ha\·e completely 0\·erlooked the symbolic aspect of the new dogma and its emotional \·alue, which is a capital fault. 1 553 The "littleness., of the Holy Spirit stems from the fact that God's pneuma dissoh·es into the form of little flames, remaining none the less intact and whole. His dwelling in a certain number of human indi\·iduals and their transformation into vicfi TOV 8Eov signifies a very important step forward beyond "Christocentrism." Anyone who takes up the question of the Holy Spirit seriously is faced with the question whether Christ is identical with the Holy Spirit or different from him. With dogma, I prefer the independence of the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit is one, a complexio oppositorum, in contrast to YHWH after the separation of the di\·ine opposites symbolized by God's two sons, Christ and Satan. On the level of the Son there is no answer to the question of good and eYil; there is only an incurable separation of the opposites. The annulling of evil by the privatio boni (declaring to be 1-'-TJ ov) is a petitio principii of the most flagrant kind and no solution whate\·er.1' It seems to me to be the Holy Spirit's task and charge toreconcile and reunite the opposites in the human individual through a special de\·elopment of the human soul. The soul is paradoxical like the Father; it is black and white, divine and demon-like, in its primitive and natural state. By the discriminative function of its conscious side it separates opposites of every kind, and especially those of the moral order personified in Christ and Devil. Thereby the soul's spiritual development creates an enormous tension, from which man can only suffer. Christ promised him redemption. But in what exactlv does this consist? The imitatio Christi leads us to C:ah·ary and to the annihilation of the "body," that is, of biological life, and if we take this death as symbolic it is a state of suspension between the opposites, that is to say, an unresoh-ed conflict. That is exactly what Przywara has named the "rift," 19 the gulf separating good from evil, the latent and apparently incurable dualism of 1' 1-

[Cf. "Ans\\·er to Job," pars. 6r3ff.] [Cf. Aion, pars. Sgff.]

[Erich Przywara. Deus semper maior, I. pp. 7If.]

68g

XII. PSYCHOLOGY AND RELIGION

Christianity, the eternity of the devil and of damnation. (Inasmuch as good is real so also is evil.) 1 554 To find the answer to this question we can but trust to our mental powers on the one hand ::tnd on the other to the functioning of the unconscious, that spirit which we cannot control. It can only be hoped that it is a "holy" spirit. The cooperation of conscious reasoning with the data of the unconscious is called the "transcendent function" ( cf. Psychological Types, par. 828). 20 This function progressively unites the opposites. Psychotherapy makes use of it to heal neurotic dissociations, but this function had already served as the basis of Hermetic philosophy for seventeen centuries. Besides this, it is a natural and spontaneous phenomenon, part of the process of individuation. Psychology has no proof that this process does not unfold itself at the instigation of God's will. 1 555 The Holy Spirit will manifest himself in any case in the psychic sphere of man and will be presented as a psychic experience. He thus becomes the object of empirical psychology, which he will need in order to translate his symbolism into the possibilities of this world. Since his intention is the incarnation, that is, the realization of the divine being in human life, he cannot be a light which the darkness comprehendeth not. On the contrary, he needs the support of man and his understanding to comprehend the mysterium iniquitatis which began in paradise before man existed. (The serpent owes his existence to God and by no means to man. The idea: omne bonum a Deo, omne malum ab homine is an entirely false one.) YHWH is inclined to find the cause of evil in men, hut he evidently represents a moral antinomy accompanied by an almost complete lack of reflection. For example, he seems to have forgotten that he created his son Satan and kept him among the other "sons of God" until the coming of Christ-a strange oversight! 1 ss6 The data of the collective unconscious favour the hypothesis of a paradoxical creator such as YHWH. An entirely good Father seems to have very little probability; such a character is difficult to admit, seeing that Christ himself endeavoured to reform his Father. He didn't completely succeed, even in his own logia. Our unconscious resembles this paradoxical God. That is why man is faced with a psychological condition which does not let him differentiate himself from the image of God (YHWH). Naturally we can believe that God is different from the image of him that we possess, but it must be admitted on the other side that the Lord 2o

[Cf. also "The Transcendent Function" (C.W., vol. 8) .]

6go

LETTER TO PERE L\CHAT

1 557

himself, while insisting on the Father's perfect goodness, has given a picture of him which fits in badly with the idea of a perfectly moral being. (A father who tempts his children, who did not prevent the error of the immediate parousia, who is so full of wrath that the blood of his only son is necessary to appease him, who left the crucified one to despair, who proposes to devastate his own creation and slay the millions of mankind to save a very few of them, and who before the end of the world is going to replace his Son's covenant by another gospel and complement the love by the fear of God.) It is interesting, or rather tragic, that God undergoes a complete relapse in the last book of the New Testament. But in the case of an antinomian being we could expect no other development. The opposites are kept in balance, and so the kingdom of Christ is followed by that of .-\ntichrist. In the circumstances the Holy Spirit, the third form of God, becomes of extreme importance, for it is thanks to him that the man of good will is drawn towards the di,Âˇine drama and mingled in it, and the Spirit is one. In him the opposites are separated no longer. Begging you to excuse the somewhat heretical character of my thoughts as well as their imperfect presentation, I remain, dear monsieur, yours sincerely, C. G. JuNe

6gr

OX RESURRECTIOX' I

558

I559

You are quite right: I have never dealt with ail aspects of the Christ-figure for the simple reason that it would have been too much. I am not a theologian and I have had no time to acquire all the knowledge that is wanted in order to attempt the solution of such problems as that of the Resurrection. Indubitably resurrection is one of the most-if not the most-important item in the myth or the biography of Christ and in the history of the primitive church. I.

56o

s6 I

Resurrection as a historical fact in the biography of Jesus

Three Gospels have a complete report about the postmortal ennts after the Crucifixion. l\Iark, however, mentions only the open and empty tomb and the presence of the angel, "·hile the apparition of the vi:"ible body of Christ has been reported by a later hand in an ob\·ious addendum. The first report about the resurrected Christ is made by ~lary Magdalene, from whom Christ had driven out seven devils. This annotation has a peculiarly cursory character (d. in particular ~lark I I : I g),~ as if somebody had realized that ~lark ·s report was altogether too meagre and that the usual things told about Christ's death ought to be added for the sake of completeness. The earliest source about the Resurrection is St. Paul, and he is no eyewitness, but he strongly emphasizes the absolute and vital importance of resurrection as well as the authenticity of the reports. ( Cf. I Cor. I 5: I 4ff and I 5: siT.) He mentions Cephas (Peter) as the first witness, then the tweh·e, then the five hundred, then James, [Written in English, I9 Feb. I954, in reply to an inquiry from ~fartha Dana, Peggy Gerry, and Marian Reith, members of a seminar on Jung's A ion led by Dr. James Kirsch, Los Angeles, I 953-54, during which (Dr. Kirsch has stated·, "e\·ery line of the book was read and commented upon. \\'hile the seminar was in progress :\Irs. Dana, ~Irs. Gerry, and 1\frs. Reith became curious about the fact that in all of the \nitings of Jung they had not found any commentary on the idea of Resurrection . . . [which) seemed to be the central event in the Christ story, and they therefore wondered why Jung had not said anything about it.") ~ [E\·idently an error for I 6: 9ff.) 1

OC\' RESL"RRECTIO::'\

Ij6 2

Ij63

I j64

I j6j

then the apostles, and finallY himself. This IS mteresting, since his experience was quite clearly an understandable Yision, while the later reports insist upon the material concreteness of Christ's body (particularly Luke 24:42 and John 20: 24ff.). The e\·angelical testimonies agree with each other only about the emptiness of the tomb, but not at all about the chronology of the eyewitnesses. There the tradition becomes utterly unreliable. If one adds the story about the end of Judas, who must ha\·e been a very interesting object to the hatred of the Christians, our doubts of the Resurrection story are intensified: there are tv.·o absolutely different versions of the way of his death. The fact of the Resurrection is historically doubtful. If we extend the beneficium duhii to those contradictory statements we could consider the possibility of an indi\·idual as well as collective vision (less likely of a materialization). The conclusion drawn bv the ancient Christians-since Christ has risen from the dead so shall \Ve rise in a new and incorruptible body-is of course just what St. Paul has feared most, 3 viz., invalid and as vain as the expectation of the immediate parousia, which has come to naught. .-\s the many shocking miracle-stories in the Gospels show, spiritual reality could not be demonstrated to the uneducated and rather primitive population in any other way but by crude and tangible "miracles" or stories of such kind. Concretism was una\·oidable with all its grotesque implications-for example, the belie\·ers in Christ were by the grace of God to be equipped with a glorified body at their resurrection, and the unbelievers and unredeemed sinners \vere too, so that they could be plagued in hell or purgatory for any length of time ..-\n incorruptible body was necessary for the latter performance, otherwise damnation would have come to an end in no time. Under those conditions, resurrection as a historical and concrete fact cannot be maintained, whereas the vanishing of the corpse could be a real fact. 2.

I566

Resurrection as a psychological event

The facts here are perfectly clear and well documented: The life of the God-man on earth comes to an end with his resurrection and transition to heaven. This is firm belief since the beginning ·1

''If Christ be not risen, thf:'n \·ain'' (I Cor. Ij:I4·1.

our prt'aching \·ain. and your faith is also

XII. PSYCHOLOGY AND RELIGION

of Christianity. In mythology it belongs to the hero that he conquers death and brings back to life his parents, tribal ancestors, etc. He has a more perfect, richer, and stronger personality than the ordinary mortal. :-\!though he is also mortal himself, death does not annihilate his existence: he continues living in a somewhat modified form. On a higher level of civilization he approache3 the type of the dying and resurrected god, like Osiris, who becomes the greater personality in every individual (like the Johannine Christ), viz., his rt!A.Ew<:> av8pw1To<:>, the complete (or perfect) man, the self. '567 The self as an archetype represents a numinous wholeness, which can be expressed only by symbols (e.g., mandala, tree, etc.). A.s a collective image it reaches beyond the individual in time and space 4 and is therefore not subjected to the corruptibility of one body: the realization of the self is nearly always connected with the feeling of timelessness, "eternity," or immortality. ( Cf. the personal and superpersonal atman.) We do not know what an archetype is (i.e., consists of), since the nature of the psyche is inaccessible to us, but we know that archetypes exist and work. rs68 From this point of view it is no longer difficult to see to what degree the story of the Resurrection represents the projection of an indirect realization of the self that had appeared in the figure of a certain man, Jesus of Nazareth, of whom many rumors were circulating. 5 In those days the old gods had ceased to be significant. Their power had already been replaced by the concrete one of the visible god, the Caesar, whose sacrifices were the only obligatory ones. But this substitution was as unsatisfactory as that of God by the communistic state. It was a frantic and desperate attempt to create-out of no matter how doubtful material-a spiritual monarch, a pantokrator, in opposition to the concretized divinity in Rome. (What a joke of the esprit d' escalier of history-the substitution for the Caesar of the pontifical office of St. Peter!) 1 s6g Their need of a spiritual authority then became so particularly urgent, because there was only one divine individual, the Caesar, while all the others were anonymous and hadn't even private gods listening to their prayers. 6 They took therefore to magic of all kinds. Cf. the so-called parapsychological phenomena. Cf. the passage about Christ in the Church Slavonic text of Josephus, The jewish War, in G.R.S. Mead, The Gnostic john the Baptizer, pp. 97ff. [=ch. III: "The Slavonic Josephus' Account of the Baptist and Jesus," pp. ro6ff.] 6 Their condition was worse than that of the Egyptians in the last pre-Christian centuries: these had already acquired an individual Osiris. As a matter of fact, Egypt turned Christian at once with no hesitation. 4

ON RESURRECTION

157Â°

1 57 1

1572

1573

Our actual situation is pretty much the same: we are rapidly becoming the slaves of an anonymous state as the highest authority ruling our lives. Communism has realized this ideal in the most perfect way. Unfortunately our democracy has nothing to offer in the way of different ideals; it also believes in the concrete power of the state. There is no spiritual authority comparable to that of the state anywhere. We are badly in need of a spiritual counterbalance to the ultimately bolshevistic concretism. It is again the case of the "witnesses" against the Caesar. The gospel writers were as eager as St. Paul to heap miraculous qualities and spiritual significances upon that almost unknown young rabbi, who after a career lasting perhaps only one year had met with an untimely end. What they made of him we know, but we don't know to what extent this picture has anything to do with the truly historical man, smothered under an avalanche of projections. Whether he was the eternally living Christ and Logos, we don't know. It makes no difference anyhow, since the image of the God-man lives in everybody and has been incarnated (i.e., projected) in the man Jesus, to make itself visible, so that people could realize him as their own interior homo, their self. Thus they had regained their human dignity: everybody had divine nature. Christ had told them: Dii est is: "ye are gods"; and as such they were his brethren, of his nature, and had overcome annihilation either through the power of the Caesar or through physical death. They were "resurrected with Christ." Since we are psychic beings and not entirely dependent upon space and time, we can easily understand the central importance of the resurrection idea: we are not completely subjected to the powers of annihilation because our psychic totality reaches beyond the barrier of space and time. Through the progressive integration of the unconscious we have a reasonable chance to make experiences of an archetypal nature prmÂˇiding us with the feeling of continuity before and after our existence. The better we understand the archetype, the more we participate in its life and the more we realize its eternity or timelessness. As roundness signifies completeness or perfection, it also expresses rotation (the rolling movement) or progress on an endless circular way, an identity with the sun and the stars (hence the beautiful confession in the "Mithraic Liturgy"; eyw Elp.t (J"Uft1TACXV0'> vp.iv cnrnjp ("I am a Star following his way like you"). The realization of the self also means a re-establishment of :Man as 6gs

XII. PSYCHOLOGY A::\'0 RELIGIOX

the microcosm, i.e., man's cosmic relatedness. Such realizations are frequently accompanied by synchronistic e\·ents. (The prophetic experience of ,·ocation belongs to this category.) 1 574 To the primitive Christians as to all primitives, the Resurrection had to be a concrete, materialistic event to be seen by the eyes and touched by the hands, as if the spirit had no existence of its own. Even in modern times people cannot easily grasp the reality of a psychic e\·ent, unless it is concrete at the same time. Resurrection as a psychic event is certainly not concrete, it is just a psychic experience. It is funny that the Christians are still so pagan that they understand spiritual existence only as a body and as a physical e\·ent. I am afraid our Christian churches cannot maintain this shocking anachronism any longer, if they don't want to get into intolerable contradictions. A.s a concession to this criticism, certain theologians have explained St. Paul's glorified (subtle) body given back to the dead on the day of judgment as the authentic individual "form," viz., a spiritual idea sufficiently characteristic of the individual that the material body could be skipped. It \\·as the evidence for man's survival after death and the hope to escape eternal damnation that made resurrection in the body the mainstay of Christian faith. We know positively only of the fact that space and time are relati\·e to the psyche.

6g6

ON THE DISCOURSES OF THE BUDDHA 1 15i5

1 Si6

It was neither the history of religion nor the study of philosophy that first drew me to the world of Buddhist thought, but my professional interests as a doctor. :\Iy task was the treatment of psychic suffering, and it was this that impelled me to become acquainted with the views and methods of that great teacher of humanity whose principal theme was the ''chain of suffering, old age, sickness, and death.'' For although the healing of the sick naturally lies closest to the doctor's heart, he is bound to recognize that there are many diseases and states of suffering which, not being susceptible of a direct cure, demand from both patient and doctor some kind of attitude to their irremediable nature. E\·en though it may not amount to actual incurability, in all such cases there are inevitably phases of stagnation and hopelessness which seem unendurable and require treatment just as much as a direct symptom of illness. They call for a kind of moral attitude such as is prO\·ided by religious faith or a philosophical belief. In this respect the study of Buddhist literature was of great help to me, since it trains one to observe suffering objectively and to take a universal view of its causes. According to tradition, it was by objectively observing the chain of causes that the Buddha was able to extricate his consciousness from the snares of the ten thousand things, and to rescue his feelings from the entanglements of emotion and illusion. So also in our sphere of culture the suffering and the sick can derive considerable benefit from this prototype of the Buddhist mentality, however strange it may appear. The discourses of the Buddha, here presented in K. E. Neumann's new translation, have an importance that should not be 1

[Statement in the publisher's prospectus for Die Reden Gotamo Buddhas, translated from the Pali Canon by Karl Eugen Neumann, 3 \·ols. Zurich, Stutt· gart, \"ienna, 1956). Statements "·ere also contributed to the prospectus by Thomas ~lann and Albert Schweitzer. Neumann ( 1865-1915) had published an earlier wrsion of his translation in 191 1. which J ung cited in W andlungen und Symbole der Libido ( 1911-121: cf. Psychology of the L'nconscious (New York, 1916), p. 538, n. 25. The present statement was published as "Zu Die Reden Gotamo Buddhas'' in Gesam. lrerke, XI. Anhang.]

XII. PSYCHOLOGY AND RELIGION

underestimated. Quite apart from their profound meaning, their solemn, almost ritual form emits a penetrating radiance which has an exhilarating and exalting effect and cannot fail to work directly upon one's feelings. Against this use of the spiritual treasures of the East it might be-and indeed, often has been-objected from the Christian point of view that the faith of the West offers consolations that are at least as significant, and that there is no need to invoke the spirit of Buddhism with its markedly rational attitude. Aside from the fact that in most cases the Christian faith of which people speak simply isn't there, and no one can tell how it might be obtained (except by the special providence of God), it is a truism that anything known becomes so familiar and hackneyed by frequent use that it gradually loses its meaning and hence its effect; whereas anything strange and unknown, and so completely different in its nature, can open doors hitherto locked and new possibilities of understanding. If a Christian insists so much on his faith when it does not even help him to ward off a neurosis, then his faith is vain, and it is better to accept humbly what he needs no matter where he finds it, if only it helps. There is no need for him to deny his religion convictions if he acknowledges his debt to Buddhism, for he is only following the Pauline injunction: "Prove all things; hold fast that which is good" (I Thess. 5: 2 1 ) . 1 577 To this good which should be held fast one must reckon the discourses of the Buddha, which have much to offer even to those who cannot boast of any Christian convictions. They offer Western man ways and means of disciplining his inner psychic life, thus remedying an often regrettable defect in the various brands of Christianity. The teachings of the Buddha can give him a helpful training when either the Christian ritual has lost its meaning or the authority of religious ideas has collapsed, as all too frequently happens in psychogenic disorders. 15 78 People have often accused me of regarding religion as "mental hygiene." Perhaps one may pardon a doctor his professional humility in not undertaking to prove the truth of metaphysical assertions and in shunning confessions of faith. I am content to emphasize the importance of having a Weltanschauung and the therapeutic necessity of adopting some kind of attitude to the problem of psychic suffering. Suffering that is not understood is hard to bear, while on the other hand it is often astounding to see how much a person can endure when he understands the why and the wherefore. A philosophical or religious view of the world enables him to do this, 6g8

ON THE DISCOl'RSES OF THE Bl'DDH.-\

and such views prove to be, at the \'ery least, psychic methods of healing if not of salvation. £\·en Christ and his disciples did not scorn to heal the sick, thereby demonstrating the therapeutic power of their mission. The doctor has to cope with actual suffering for better or worse, and ultimately has nothing to rely on except the mystery of divine PrO\·idence. It is no wonder, then, that he values religious ideas and attitudes, so far as they prove helpful, as therapeutic systems, and singles out the Buddha in particular, the essence of whose teaching is deliverance from suffering through the maximum development of consciousness, as one of the supreme helpers on the road to salvation. From ancient times physicians have sought a panacea, a medirina ratholira, and their persistent efforts have unconsciously brought them nearer to the central ideas of the religion and philosophy of the East. I5i9 .-\.nyone who is familiar with methods of suggestion under hypnosis knows that plausible suggestions work better than those which run counter to the patient's own nature. Consequently, whether he liked it or not, the doctor was obliged to develop conceptions which corresponded as closely as possible with the actual psychological conditions. Thus, there grew up a realm of theory which not only drew upon traditional thought but took account of the unconscious products that compensated its inevitable one-sidedness-that is to say, all those psychic factors which Christian philosophy left unsatisfied. Among these were not a few aspects which, unknown to the West, had been developed in Eastern philosophy from very early times. 1 58° So if, as a doctor, I acknowledge the immense help and stimulation I have received from the Buddhist teachings, I am following a line which can be traced back some two thousand vears in the history of human thought.

6gg

FORE\\.ORD TO FROBOESE-THIELE: "TRAlJl\1£- EINE QUELL£ RELIGIOSER ERF:\HRUNG?" 1 This book has the merit of being the first to im·estigate how the unconscious of Protestants behaves when it has to compensate an intensely religious attitude. The author examines this question with the help of case material she has collected in her practical work. She has evidently had the good fortune to come upon some very instructive cases who, moreover, did not object to the publication of their material. Since we owe our knowledge of unconscious processes primarily to dreams, the author is mainly concerned with the dreams of her patients. Even for one familiar with this material, the dreams and symbols reported here are remarkable. As a therapist, she handle<> the dreams in a very felicitous manner, from the practical side chiefly, so that a reciprocal understanding of the meaning of the dream is gradually built up bet>veen her and the patient. This puts the reader in the advantageous position of listening in on a dialogue, so to speak. The method is as instructive as it is satisfying, since it is possible to present in this way several fairly long sequences of dreams. :\ detailed scientific commentary would take up a disproportionate amount of space without making the dream interpretation any more impressive. If the interpretation is at times uncertain, or disregards various details, this in no way affects the therapeutic intention to bring the meaning of the dream nearer to consciousness. In actual practice, one can often do full justice to a dream if one simply puts its general tendency, its emotional atmosphere, and its approximate meaning in the right light, having first, of course, assured oneself of the spontaneous approval of the dreamer. With intelligent persons, this thoughtful feeling of one's way into the meaning of the dream can soon be left to the patient himself. I58 2 The author has been entirely successful in bringing out the religious meaning of the dreams and so demonstrating her thesis. A

58 I

[Gi:ittingen, I 95 7. By Felicia Frohoese-Thiele. ("Dreams-a Source of Religious Experience?")) 700

FROBOESE:

"TRAUME-EINE QUELLE RELIGIOSER ERFAHRUNG?"

religious attitude does in fact offer a direct challenge to the unconscious, and the more inimical the conscious attitude is to life, the more forceful and drastic will be this unconscious reaction. It serves the purpose, firstly, of compensating the extremism of the conscious attitude and, secondly, of individuation, since it re-establishes the approximate wholeness of the personality. 1 583 The material which Dr. Froboese-Thiele has made available in her book is of considerable importance for doctors and theologians alike, since both of them have here an opportunity to assure themselves that the unconscious possesses a religious aspect against which no cogent arguments can be mustered. One is left with a feeling of shame that so little of the empirical case material which would give the layman an adequate idea of these religious processes has been published. The author deserves our special thanks for having taken the trouble to write up these exacting cases in extenso. I hope her book will come into the hands of many thoughtful persons whose minds are not stopped up with needless prejudices, and who would be in a position to find a satisfactory answer to religious questions, or at least to come by those experiences which ought to underlie any authentic religious convictions.

701

JUNG AND RELIGIOUS BELIEF' 1.

Questions to ]ung and His Answers"

QUE~TION r.

1 584

You say that religion is psychically healthy and often for the latter part of life essential, but is it not ps_vchicafT)â&#x20AC;˘ healthy only if the religious person believes that his religion is true? Do you think that in your natural wish to keep to the realm of psychology you have tended to underestimate man's search for truth and the ways in which he might reach this as, for example, by inference? Nobody is more convinced of the importance of the search for truth than I am. But when I say: something transcendental is true, my critique begins. If I call something true, it does not mean that it is absolutely true. It merely seems to be true to myself andjor to other people. If I were not doubtful in this respect it would mean that I implicitly assume that I am able to state an absolute truth. This is an obvious hybris. When Mr. Erich Fromm 3 criticizes [Extracts from H. L. Philp, Jung and the Problem of Ec il (London, 1958). The book consists of correspondence between the author and Jung in the form of questions and answers (in English), and an extended critical attack of I 75 pages on Jung's writings on religion, with particular reference to Answer to Job. It concludes with Jung's answers to questions sent by another correspondent, the Rev. David Cox (author of fung and St. Paul, 1959). In both cases the answers are reproduced here with minor stylistic revisions and additional footnotes. The bibliographical references to J ung's works have been brought up to date. For other letters from Jung to Philp, see Letters, ed. G. Adler, vol. 2.] 2 [Philp, pp. 8-21. ( 9 Nov. 1956.)] 3 [In his question, Philp quoted the following passage from Fromm, Psychoanalysis and Religion, pp. 23f.: "Before I present Jung's analysis of religion a critical examination of these methodological premises seems warranted. Jung's use of the concept of truth is not tenable. He states that 'truth is a fact and not a judgment,' that 'an elephant is true because it exists.' But he forgets that truth always and necessarily refers to a judgment and not to a description of a phenomenon which we perceive with our senses and which we denote with a word symbol. J ung then states that an idea is 'psychologically true inasmuch as it exists.' But an idea 'exists' regardless of whether 1t IS a delusion or whether it corresponds to fact. The existence of an idea does 1

jl':'\G A:\"D RELIGIOUS BELIEF

me for having a wrong idea and quotes Judaism, Christianity, and Buddhism he demonstrates how illogical his standpoint is, as are the views of those religions themselves, i.e., their truths contradict each other. Judaism has a morally ambivalent God; Christianity a Trinity and Summum Bonum; Buddhism has no God but has interior gods. Their truth is relative and not an absolute truth-if you put them on the same level, as Mr. Fromm does. I naturally admit, and I even strongly believe, that it is of the highest importance to state a "truth." I should be prepared to make transcendental statements, but on one condition: that I state at the same time the possibility of their being untrue. For instance "God is," i.e., is as I think he is. But as I know that I could not possibly form an adequate idea of an all-embracing eternal being, my idea of him is pitifully incomplete; thus the statement "God is not" (so) is equally true and necessary. To make absolute statements is heyond man's reach, although it is ethically indispensable that he give all the credit to his subjective truth, which means that he admits being bound by his conviction to apply it as a principle of his actions. Any human judgment, no matter how great its subjective conviction, is liable to error, particularly judgments concerning transcendental subjects. ~Ir. Fromm's philosophy has not transcended yet-I am afraid-the level of the twentieth century; but the power-drive of man and his hybris are so great that he believes in an absolutely valid judgment. No scientifically minded person with a sense of intellectual responsibility can allow himself such arrogance. These are the reasons why I insist upon the criterion of existence, both in the realm of science and in the realm of religion, and upon immediate and primordial experience. Facts are facts and contain no falsity. It is our judgment that introduces the element of deception. To my mind it is more important that an idea exists than that it is true. This despite the fact that it makes a great deal of difference subjectively whether an idea seems to not make it 'true' in any sense. Even the practising psychiatrist could not work \vere he not concerned with the truth of an idea, that is, with its relation to the phenomena it tends to portray. Otherwise, he could not speak of a delusion or a paranoid system. But Jung's approach is not only untenable from a psychiatric standpoint; he advocates a standpoint of relativism which though on the surface more friendly to religion than Freud's, is in its spirit fundamC'ntally opposed to religions like Judaism, Christianity, and Buddhism. These consider the striving for truth as one of man's cardinal virtues and ohligatiom and insist that their doctrines whether arrived at by revelation or only hy the power of reason are subject to the criterion of truth."]

XII. PSYCHOLOGY AND RELIGION

me to be true or not, though this is a secondary consideration since there is no way of establishing the truth or untruth of a transcendental statement other than by a subjective belief.

Is it possible that you depreciate consciousness through an overvaluation of the unconscious? I have never had any tendency to depreciate consciousness by insisting upon the importance of the unconscious. If such a tendency is attributed to me it is due to a sort of optical illusion. Consciousness is the "known," but the unconscious is very little known and my chief efforts are devoted to the elucidation of our unconscious psyche. The result of this is, naturally, that I talk more about the unconscious than about the conscious. Since eYerybody believes or, at least, tries to believe in the unequivocal superiority of rational consciousness, I have to emphasize the importance of the unconscious irrational forces, to establish a sort of balance. Thus to superficial readers of my writings it looks as if I were giving the unconscious a supreme significance, disregarding consciousness. As a matter of fact the emphasis lies on consciousness as the conditio sine qua non of apperception of unconscious contents, and the supreme arbiter in the chaos of unconscious possibilities. l\I y book about Types is a careful study of the empirical structure of consciousness. If we had an inferior consciousness, we should all be crazy. The ego and ego-consciousness are of paramount importance. It would be superfluous to emphasize consciousness if it were not in a peculiar compensatory relationship with the unconscious. People like Demant 4 start from the prejudiced idea that the unconscious is something more or less nasty and archaic that one should get rid of. This is not vouched for by experience. The unconscious is neutral, rather like nature. If it is destructive on the one side, it is as constructive on the other side. It is the source of all sorts of evils and also the matrix of all divine experience and-paradoxical as it may sound-it has brought forth and brings forth consciousness. Such a statement does not mean that the source originates, i.e., that the water is created just at the spot where you see the source of a river; it comes from deep down in the mountain and runs along its secret ways before it reaches daylight. When I say, "Here is the source," I only mean the spot where the water becomes visible. The water-simile expresses rather aptly the nature and importance of the unconscious. Where there is no water nothing QUESTION 2.

1 585

1 s86

[Cf. The Religious Prospect, pp. 188ff., quoted by Philp in his question.)

JUNG AND RELIGIOUS BELIEF

lives; where there is too much of it everything drowns. It is the task of consciousness to select the right place where you are not too near and not too far from water; but the water is indispensable. An unfavourable opinion about the unconscious does not enable proper Christians, like Demant, to realize that religious experience, so far as the human mind can grasp it, cannot be distinguished from the experience of so-called unconscious phenomena. A metaphysical being does not as a rule speak through the telephone to you; it usually communicates with man through the medium of the soul, in other words, our unconscious, or rather through its transcendental "psychoid" basis. 5 If one depreciates the unconscious one blocks the channels through which the aqua gratiae flows, but one certainly does not incapacitate the devil by this method. Creating obstacles is just his metier. '587 ·when St. Paul had the vision of Christ, that vision was a psychic phenomenon-if it was anything. I don't presume to know what the psyche is; I only know that there is a psychic realm in which and from which such manifestations start. It is the place where the aqua gratiae springs forth, but it comes, as I know quite well, from the immeasurable depths of the mountain and I don't pretend to know about the secret ways and places the water flows through before it reaches the surface. 1 588 As the general manifestations of the unconscious are ambivalent or even ambiguous ("It is a fearful thing to fall into the hands of the living God," He b. I o: 3 I ) , decision and discriminating judgment are all-important. We see that particularly clearly in the development of the individuation process, when we have to prevent the patient from either rejecting blindly the data of the unconscious or submitting to them without criticism. (Why has Jacob to fight the angel of the Lord? Because he would be killed if he did not defend his life.) There is no development at all hut only a miserable death in a thirsty desert if one thinks one can rule the unconscious by our arbitrary rationalism. That is exactly what the German principle, "Where there is a will, there is a way," tried to do, and you know with what results. QUESTION 3· In your «Answer to job" you state, page 463 (Collected Works, Vol. I I): ''I have been asked so often whether I believe in the existence of God or not that I am somewhat concerned lest I be taken for an adherent of 'psychologism' far more 5

[Cf. "On the Nature of the Psyche" (C.W., vol. 8), par. 368.)

705

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1589

commonly than I suspect." You go on to say, ((God is an obvious psychic and non-physical fact," but I feel in the end you do not actually answer the question as t.o whether or not you believe in the existence of God other than as an archetype. Do you? This question is important because I should like to answer the kind of objection raised by Glover in his Freud or Jung, page 163: ((lung's system is fundamentally irreligious. Nobody is to care whether God exists, ]ung least of all. All that is necessary is to 'experience' an ((attitude' because it 'helps one to live.'" An archetype-so far as we can establish it empirically-is an image. An image, as the very term denotes, is a picture of something. An archetypal image is like the portrait of an unknown man in a gallery. His name, his biography, his existence in general are unknown, but we assume nevertheless that the picture portrays a once living subject, a man who was real. We find numberless images of God, but we cannot produce the original. There is no doubt in my mind that there is an original behind our images, but it is inaccessible. We could not even be aware of the original since its translation into psychic terms is necessary in order to make it perceptible at all. How would Kant's Critique of Pure Reason look when translated into the psychic imagery of a cockroach? And I assume that the difference between man and the creator of all things is immeasurably greater than between a cockroach and man. Why should we be so immodest as to suppose that we could catch a universal being in the narrow confines of our language? We know that God-images play a great role in psychology, but we cannot prove the physical existence of God. As a responsible scientist I am not going to preach my personal and subjective convictions which I cannot prove. I add nothing to cognition or to a further improvement and extension of consciousness when I confess my personal prejudices. I simply go as far as my mind can reach, but to venture opinions beyond my mental reach would be immoral from the standpoint of my intellectual ethics. If I should say, "I believe in such and such a God," it would be just as futile as when a Negro states his firm belief that the tin-box he found on the shore contains a powerful fetish. If I keep to a statement which I think I can prove, this does not mean that I deny the existence of anything else that might exist beyond it. It is sheer malevolence to accuse me of an atheistic attitude simply because I try to be honest and disciplined. Speaking for myself, the question whether God exists or not is futile. I am sufficiently convinced of the effects

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man has always attributed to a divine being. If I should express a belief beyond that or should assert the existence of God, it would not only be superfluous and inefficient, it would show that I am not basing my opinion on facts. When people say that they believe in the existence of God, it has never impressed me in the least. Either I know a thing and then I don't need to believe it; or I believe it because I am not sure that I know it. I am well satisfied with the fact that I know experiences which I cannot avoid calling numinous or divine.

4· Do you ignore the importance of other disciplines for the psyche? Goldbrunner in his Individuation, page 161, says that your treatment of «what God is in Himself" is a question which you regard as beyond the scope of psychology, and adds: ({This implies a positivistic, agnostic renunciation of all metaphysics." Do you agree that your treatment amounts to that? W auld you not agree that such subjects as metaphysics and history have their place in the experience of the psyche? I do not ignore the importance of other disciplines for the psyche. When I was professor at the E.T.H. in Zurich I lectured for a whole year about Tantrism 6 and for another year about the Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius of Loyola. 7 Moreover, I have written a number of hooks about the peculiar spiritual discipline of the alchemists. What Goldbrunner says is quite correct. I don't know what God is in himself. I don't suffer from megalomania. Psychology to me is an honest science that recognizes its own boundaries, and I am not a philosopher or a theologian who believes in his ability to step beyond the epistemological barrier. Science is made by man, which does not mean that there are not occasionally acts of grace permitting transgression into realms beyond. I don't depreciate or deny such facts, but to me they are beyond the scope of science as pointed out above. I believe firmly in the intrinsic value of the human attempt to gain understanding, hut I also recognize that the human mind cannot step beyond itself, although divine grace may and probably does allow at least glimpses into a transcendental QUESTION

I59°

I59I

G[Seminar on Buddhism and Tantric Yoga (Oct. I938 to June I939), in The Process of lndiuiduation. Notes on Lectures at the ETH, Zurich, trans. and ed. by Barbara Hannah. Privately issued.] 7 [Exercitia Spiritualia of St. Ignatius of Loyola (June I 939 to Mar. I 940), in ibid.]

XII. PSYCHOLOGY AND RELIGION

order of things. But I am neither able to giYe a rational account of such divine interventions nor can I prove them. l\bny of the analytical hours with my patients are filled with discussions of "metaphysical" intrusions, and I am in dire need of historical knowledge to meet all the problems I am asked to deal with. For the patient's mental health it is all-important that he gets some proper understanding of the numina the collective unconscious produces, and that he assigns the proper place to them. It is, however, either a distortion of the truth or lack of information when Goldbrunner calls my attitude "positivistic,'' which means a one-sided recognition of scientific truth. I know too well how transitory and sometimes even futile our hypotheses are, to assume their validity as durable truths and as trustworthy foundations of a W eltanschauung capable of giYing man sure guidance in the chaos of this world. On the contrary, I rely very much on the continuous influx of the numina from the unconscious and from whatever lies behind it. Goldbrunner therefore is also wrong to speak of an "agnostic renunciation of all metaphysics." I merely hold that metaphysics cannot be an object of science, which does not mean that numinous experiences do not happen frequently, particularly in the course of an analysis or in the life of a truly religious individual. QUE~TI00.'

5· If my reading of your views is correct, I should judge that you think evil to be a far more active force than traditional theological [•iews have allowed for. You appear unable to interpret the condition of the world today unless this is so. Am I correct in this? If so, is it really necessary to expect to find the dark side in the Deity? And if you believe that Satan completes the quaternity does this not mean that the Deity would be amoral? Victor White in his God and the Unconscious writes at the end of his footnote on page 76: uon the other hand, we are unable to find any intelligible, let alone desirable, meaning in such fundamental jungian conceptions as the <assimilation of the shadow' if they are not to be understood as the suppl_1'ing of some absent good (e.g., consciousness) to what is essentially z·aluable and of itself <good.'" '592

I am indeed com·inced that evil is as positive a factor as good. Quite apart from everyday experience it would be extremely illogical to assume that one can state a quality without its opposite. If something is good, then there must needs be something that is e\·il or bad. The statement that something is good would not be

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possible if one could not discriminate it from something else. Even if one says that something exists, such a statement is only possible alongside the other statement that something does not exist. Thus when the Church doctrine declares that e\"il is not (p.iJ ov) or is a mere shadow, then the good is equally illusory, as its statement would make no sense. 1 593 Suppose one has something I oo-per-cent good, and if anything evil come.-; in it is diminished, say by 5 per cent. Then one possesses 95 per cent of goodness and 5 per cent is just absent. If the original good diminished by 99 per cent, one has I per cent good and 99 per cent is gone. If that I per cent also disappears, the whole possession is gone and one has nothing at all. To the very last moment one had only good and oneself was good, but on the other side there is simply nothing and nothing has happened. £\"il deeds simply do not exist. The identification of good with ousia is a fallacy, because a man who is thoroughly e\"il does not disappear at all when he has lost his last good. But e\"en if he ha'S r per cent of good, his bcdy and ~oul and his whole existence are still thoroughly good; for, according to the doctrine, e\"il is simply identical with non-existence. This is such a horrible syllogism that there must be a very strong motive for its construction. The reason is ob\·ious: it is a desperate attempt to sa\"e the Christian faith from dualism. According to this theory [of the privatio bani] e\·en the devil, the incarnate evil, must be good, because he exists, but inasmuch as he is thoroughly bad, he does not exist. This is a clear attempt to annihilate dualism in flagrant contradiction to the dogma that the devil is eternal and damnation a \"ery real thing. I don't pretend to be able to explain the actual condition of the world, but it is plain to any unprejudiced mind that the forces of evil are dangerously near to a victory owr the powers of good. Here Basil the Great would say, "Of course that is so, but all evil come-s from man and not from God," forgetting altogether that the serpent in Paradise was not made by man, and that Satan is one of the sons of God, prior to man. If man were positiwly the origin of all evil, he would possess a power equal or almost equal to that of the good, which is God. But we don't need to inquire into the origin of Satan. We have plenty of evidence in the Old Testament that Yahweh is moral and immoral at the same time, and Rabbinic theology is fully aware of this fact. Yahweh beha\"es very much like an immoral being, though he is a guardian of law and order. He is unjust and unreliable according to the Old Testament. £\"en

709

XII. PSYCHOLOGY AND RELIGION

the God of the New Testament is still irascible and vengeful to such a degree that he needs the self-sacrifice of his son to quench his wrath. Christian theology has never denied the identity of the God of the Old Testament with that of the New Testament. Now I ask you: what would you call a judge that is a guardian of the Law and is himself unjust? One would be inclined to call such a man immoral. I would call him both immoral and moral, and I think I express the truth with this formula. Certainly the God of the Old Testament is good and evil. He is the Father or Creator of Satan as well as of Christ. Certainly if God the Father were nothing else than a loving Father, Christ's cruel sacrificial death would be thoroughly superfluous. I would not allow my son to be slaughtered in order to be reconciled to my disobedient children. 1 594 What Victor White writes about the assimilation of the shadow is not to be taken seriously. Being a Catholic priest he is bound hand and foot to the doctrine of his Church and has to defend every syllogism. The Church knows all about the assimilation of the shadow, i.e., how it is to be repressed and what is evil. Being a doctor I am never too certain about my moral judgments. Too often I find that something that is a virtue in one individual is a vice in another, and something that is good for the one is poison for another. On the other hand, pious feeling has invented the term of felix culpa and Christ preferred the sinner. Even God does not seem particularly pleased with mere righteousness. 1 595 Nowhere else is it more important to emphasize that we are speaking of our traditional image of God (which is not the same as the original) than in the discussion of the privati a bani. We don't produce God by the magic word or by representing his image. The word for us is still a fetish, and we assume that it produces the thing of which it is only an image. What God is in himself nobody knows; at least I don't. Thus it is beyond the reach of man to make valid statements about the divine nature. If we disregard the short-comings of the human mind in assuming a knowledge about God, which we cannot have, we simply get ourselves into most appalling contradictions and in trying to extricate ourselves from them we use awful syllogisms, like the privatio boni. :t\foreover our superstitious belief in the power of the word is a serious obstacle to our thinking. That is the historical reason why quite a number of shocking contradictions have been heaped up, offering facile opportunities to the enemy of religion. I strongly advocate, therefore, a revision of our religious formulas with the 710

JU~G

A~D

RELIGIOUS BELIEF

aid of psychological insight. It is the great advantage of Protestantism that an intelligent discussion is possible. Protestantism should make use of this freedom. Only a thing that changes and evolves, lives, but static things mean spiritual death.' 2.

Final Questions and Answers"

If Christ, in His Incarnation, concentrated, as you contend, on goodness ("Answer to job," pp. 414, 429f.) what do you mean by "Christ preferred the sinner" and "Even God does not seem particularly pleased with mere righteousness"? Is there not an inconsistency here? I596 Of course there is. I am just pointing it out. QUESTION

You stress the principle of the opposites and the importance of their union. J'ou also write of enantiodromia in relation to the opposites but this (in the sense in which Heraclitus used the term) would never produce a condition of stability which could lead to the union of the opposites. So is there not a contradiction in what you say about the opposites? I597 "Enantiodromia" describes a certain psychological fact, i.e., I use it as a psychological concept. Of course it does not lead to a union of opposites, has-as a matter of fact-nothing to do with it. I see no contradiction anywhere. QUESTION 2.

3Âˇ If the principle of enantiodromia, a perpetual swinging of the pendulum, is always present would we not have a condition in which there would be no sense of responsibility, but one of amorality and meaninglessness? I598 Naturally life would he quite meaningless if the enantiodromia of psychological states kept on for ever. But such an assumption would be both arbitrary and foolish. QT:ESTION

4Âˇ When we come into close contact with pharisaism, theft or murder, involving uncharitableness, ruthless and selfish treatment of others, we know that they are cui! and l'ery ugly. In

QUESTION

'For the comprehension of the problems here mentioned, I recommend: "Answer to Job"; "A Psychological Approach to the Dogma of the Trinity" ( ch. 5, "The Problem of the Fourth"); A ion ( ch. 5, "Christ, A Symbol of the Self"); Psychology and Alchemy (Introduction, especially par. 36). For the biography of Satan, seeR. Scharf-Kluger, Satan in the Old Testament. 9 [Philp, pp. 2I4-25. (8 Oct. I957-'i Page references for "Answer to Job" are to C.W., vol. I I.)

XII. PSYCHOLOGY AND RELIGIOi'-1

actual life what we call goodness-loyalty, integrity, charitableness-does not appear as one of a pair of opposites but as the kind of behavior we want for ourselves and others. The difficulty is that we cannot judge all the motives involved in any action with certainty. We are unable to see the complete fJicture and so we should be cautious and charitable in our judgments. But this does not mean that what is good is not good, or what is evil is not evil. Do you not think that what you have to say about the quaternity and enantiodromia ultimately blurs the distinction between good and evil? Is not what is blurred only our capacity always to see the real moral issues clearly? 1599

It only means that moral judgment is human, limited, and under no condition metaphysically valid. Within these confines good is good, and evil is evil. One must have the courage to stand up for one's convictions. We cannot imagine a state of wholeness (quaternity) which is good and evil. It is beyond our moral judgment.

5Âˇ Theologians who believe in Satan have maintained that he was created good but that through the use of his free will he became evil. What necessity is there to assume that he is the inevitable principle of evil in the Godhead-the fourth member of the quaternity?

QUESTION

16oo

Because the Three are the Summum Bonum, and the devil is the principle and personification of evil. In a Catholic quaternity the fourth would be the Mother, gg-per-cent divine. The devil would not count, being p.-7] ov, an empty shadow owing to the privatio boni, in which the Bonum is equal to ovu-ia. QUESTION 6. You build much on the existence of four functions, thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition. Is this a final or satisfactory typology? If feeling is included, why not conation?

The four functions are a mere model for envisaging the qualities of consciousness. Conation is a term applicable to the creative process starting in the unconscious and ending in a conscious result, in other words a dynamic aspect of psychic life.

7Âˇ By different approaches in your later writings you add Satan and the Blessed Virgin M my to the Trinity, but this would make a quinary. Who compose the quaternity?

QUESTION

The quatemity can be a hypothetical structure, depicting a wholeness. It is also not a logical concept, but an empirical fact. The quinarius or quinio (in the form of 4 1, i.e., quincunx) does occur as a symbol of wholeness (in China and occasionally in al-

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chemy) but relatively rarely. Otherwise the quinio is not a symbol of wholeness, quite the contrary (e.g., the five-rayed star of the Soviets or of U.S.A.). Rather, it is a chaotic prima materia.

8. Would not the quatern:"ty involve not only a revision of doctrine but of moral issues as well, for it would appear inevitably

QUESTION

to mean complete moral relatiz·ity and so amorality having its source in the Godhead Itself? 1 6°3 Man cannot live without moral judgment. From the fact of I ( 3 = good, I = evil) the empirical quaternary structure of 3 we can conclude that the unconscious characterizes itself as an unequal mixture of good and e,·il. 1 6o4 There are also not a few cases where the structure is reversed: I 3 ( I = good, 3 = e\·il). 3 in this case would form the so-called "lower triad." Since the quaternity as a rule appears as a unity, the opposites annul each other, which simply means that our anthropomorphic judgment is no more applicable, i.e., the divinity is beyond good and evil, or else metaphysical assertion is not valid. In so far as the human mind and its necessities issue from the hands of the Creator, we must assume that moral judgment was provided by the same source.

g. What exactly are you referrinf!, to when )'OU use the word "quaternity" in relation to religion? Are you using "quaternity" purely for images u·hich men form of the Godhead? You sometimes give the impression that you are referring to God-images alone. At other times you write as if you have in mind the Godhead itself. This is especially so when you stress the necessity of including Satan and also the Blessed Virgin Mary in the Godhead. If you do not refer to the Godhead itself, there seems to me to be no explanation of the urgency of your words about recognizing the evil principle in God and your welcome of the promulgation of the Assumption. I6os I use the term "quaternity" for the mandala and similar structures that appear spontaneously in dreams and visions, or are "invented" (from invenire = to find), to express a totality (like four winds and seasons or four sons, seraphim, evangelists, gospels, fourfold path, etc.). The quaternity is of course an image or picture, which does not mean that there is no original! I6o6 If the opposi~es were not contained in the image, it would not be an image of totality. But it is meant to be a picture of ineffable ·wholeness, in other words, its symbol. It has an importance for the QUESTION

7I3

XII. PSYCHOLOGY AND RELIGION

theologian only in so far as the latter attributes significance to it. If he assumes that his images or formulations are not contents of his consciousness (which is a contradictio in adiecto), he can only state that they are exact replicas of the original. But who could suggest such a thing? In spite of the fact that the Church long ago discouraged the idea of a quaternity, the fact remains that Church symbolism abounds in quaternity allusions. As Three (Trinity) is only one (albeit the main) aspect of the Deity, the remaining fourth principle is wiped out of existence by the privatio bani syllogism. But the Catholic Church was aware that the picture without opposites is not complete. It therefore admitted (at least tentatively) the existence of a feminine factor within the precincts of the masculine Trinity (Assumptio Beatae Virginis). For good reasons the devil is still excluded, and even annihilated, by the privatio bani. 1607 The admission of the Beata Virgo is a daring attempt, in so far as she belongs to lubricum illud genus 10 (St. Epiphanius), so suspect to the moralistic propensities of the said Church. However, she has been spiritually "disinfected" by the dogma of Conceptio immaculata. I consider the Assumption as a cautious approach to the solution of the problem of opposites, namely, to the integration of the fourth metaphysical figure into the divine totality. The Catholic Church has almost succeeded in creating a quaternity without shadow, but the devil is still outside. The Assumption is at least an important step forward in Christian (?) symbolism. This evolution will be completed when the dogma of the Co-Redemptrix is reached. But the main problem will not be solved, although one pair of opposites ( ~ and ~ ) has been smuggled into the divine wholeness. Thus the Catholic Church (in the person of the Pope) has at least seen fit to take the Marianic movement in the masses, i.e., a psychological fact, so seriously that he did not hesitate to give up the time-hallowed principle of apostolic authority. t6o8 Protestanism is free to ignore the spiritual problems raised by our time, but it will remove itself from the battlefield and thereby lose its contact with life. t6og Being a natural and spontaneous symbol, the quaternity has everything to do with human psychology, while the trinitarian symbol (though equally spontaneous) has become cold, a remote abstraction. Curiously enough, among my collection of mandalas I have only a small number of trinities and triads. They stem one 1o ["that slippery sex."]

J"CNG AND RELIGIOUS BELIEF

and all from Germans! 11 (Unconscious of their shadows, therefore unaware of collective guilt!) I6Io I do not know at all to what extent human formulas, whether invented or spontaneous, correspond with the original. I only know that we are profoundly concerned with them, whether people know it or not, just as you can be with an illness of which you are unaware. It makes an enormous practical difference whether your dominant idea of totality is three or four. In the former case all good comes from God, all evil from man. Then man is the devil. In the latter case man has a chance to be saved from devilish possession, in so far as he is not inflated with evil. What happened under National Socialism in Germany? What is happening under Bolshevism? With the quaternity the powers of evil, so much greater than man's, are restored to the divine wholeness, whence they originated, even according to Genesis. The serpent was not created by man. I6II The quaternity symbol has as much to do with the Godhead as the Trinity has. As soon as I begin to think at all about the experience of "God," I have to choose from my store of images between [concepts representing him as a J monad, dyad, triad, tetrad or an indistinct multiplicity. In any serious case the choice is limited by the kind of revealed image one has received. Yahweh and Allah are monads, the Christian God a triad (historically), the modern experience presumably a tetrad, the early Persian deity a dyad. In the East you have the dyadic monad Tao and the monadic Anthropos (purusha), Buddha, etc. I 6I 2 In my humble opinion all this has very much to do with psychology. We have nothing to go by but these images. Without images you could not even speak of divine experiences. You would be completely inarticulate. You only could stammer "mana" and even that would be an image. Since it is a matter of an ineffable experience the image is indispensable. I would completely agree if you should say: God approaches man in the form of symbols. But we are far from knowing whether the symbol is correct or not. I6I3 The privatio bani cannot be compared to the quaternity, because it is not a revelation. On the contrary, it has all the earmarks of a "doctrine," a philosophical invention. I6I4 It makes no difference at all whether I say "God" or "Godhead." Both are in themselves far beyond man's reach. To us they are revealed as psychic images, i.e., symbols. I6 1 5 I am far from making any statements about God himself. I l1

[Cf. "Flying Saucers: A Modem Myth" (C.W., vol.

10),

par. 775.]

XII. PSYCHOLOGY AND RELIGION

am talking about images, which it is very important to think and talk about, and to criticize, because so much depends upon the nature of our dominant ideas. It makes all the difference in the world whether I think that the source of evil or good is myself, my neighbour, the devil, or the supreme being. 16 16 Of course I am pleading the cause of the thinking man, and, inasmuch as most people do not think, of a small minority. Yet it has its place in creation and presumably it makes sense. Its contribution to the development of consciousness is considerable and since Nature has bestowed the highest premium of success on the conscious being, consciousness must be more precious to Nature than unconsciousness. Therefore I think that I am not too far astray in trying to understand the symbol of the Deity. My opinion is that such an attempt-whether successful or not-could be of great interest to theology which is built on the same primordial images, whether one likes it or not. At all events you will find it increasingly difficult to convince the educated layman that theology has nothing to do with psychology, when the latter acknowledges its indebtedness to the theological approach. 1 617 My discussion with theology starts from the fact that the naturally revealed central symbols, such as the quaternity, are not in harmony with trinitarian symbols. While the former includes the darkness in the divine totality, the Christian symbol excludes it. The Yahwistic symbol of the star of David is a complexio oppositorum: /":,,fire 'V and water 'Â˘1, a mandala built on three, an unconscious acknowledgment of the Trinity but including the shadow. Properly so, because Satan is still among the bene Elohim [sons of God], though Christ saw him falling out of heaven [Luke ro: r8]. This vision points to the Gnostic abscission of the shadow, mentioned by Irenaeus. 1 ~ As I have said, it makes a great and vital difference to man whether or not he considers himself as the source of evil, while maintaining that all good stems from God. Whether he knows it or not, this fills him with satanic pride and hybris on the one side and with an abysmal feeling of inferiority on the other. But when he ascribes the immense power of the opposites to the Deity, he falls into his modest place as a small image of the Deity, not of Yahweh, in whom the opposites are unconscious, but of a quaternity consisting of the main opposites: male and female, good and evil, and reflected in human consciousness as confirmed by psychological experience and by the historical ev11

[Ad,Âˇersus haereses, II, 5,

Cf. A ion, C.W., vol. g,ii, par. 75 and n. 23.]

716

JUNG AND RELIGIOUS BELIEF

dence. Or have I invented the idea of Tao, the living spiritual symbol of ancient China? Or the four sons of Horus in ancient Egypt? Or the alchemical quaternity that lived for almost a thousand years? Or the Mahayana mandala which is still alive? QUESTION 1 o. One of your objections to the privatio bani doctrine is that it minimizes evil, but does not your view of the quaternity, which includes both good and evil, minimize evil much more surely and assume its existence for ever? I6I8 The quaternity symbol relativizes good and evil, but it does not minimize them in the least.

You argue in a Answer to ]ob" (pp. 399, 430) that, because of his virgin birth, Christ was not truly man and so could not be a full incarnation in terms of human nature. Do you believe that Christ was born of a virgin? If not, the argument in ((Answer to fob" falls to pieces. If you believe in the Virgin Birth, would it not be logical to accept the whole emphasis of the Christian Creeds, for they would not appear to be more difficult to believe in than the Virgin Birth? The dogma of the Virgin Birth does not abolish the fact that "God" in the form of the Holy Ghost is Christ's father. If Yahweh is his father, then it is a matter of an a priori union of opposites. If the Summum Bonum is his father, then the powers of darkness are missing and the term "good" has lost its meaning and Christ has not become man, because man is affiicted with darkness.

QUESTION 1 1.

I6Ig

Christ, so the Gospel narratives assert, was born in a manger because there was no room for Him in the inn at Bethlehem; His early life included the Slaughter of the Innocents and His family lived for a time exiled in Egypt; He faced temptation in the wilderness; His ministry was carried on under such hard conditions that He ((had not where to lay His head" (Matt. 8:20). He met and ministered to numerous sufferers; sinners received His sympathy and understanding; He endured an agony of suffering in the Garden of Gethsemane and this was followed by His trials, and finally the cruellest of deaths by crucifixion. On what grounds then can you argue that Christ was an incarnation of the light side of God and that He did not enter fully into the dark aspects of existence? ("Answer to fob," pp. 39Bf., 414, 430.) On the contrary, traditionally He has often been thought of as ÂŤa man of sorrows, and acquainted with grief." QUESTION 12.

717

XII. PSYCHOLOGY AND RELIGION 1 6 20

All that has nothing to do with the dark side of man. Christ is on the contrary the innocent and blameless victim without the macula peccati, therefore not really a human being who has to live without the benefit of the Virgin Birth and is crucified in a thousand forms. QUESTION 1 3·

1621

What do you mean when in "Answer to fob" you refer to Antichrist and his reign, and state that this was astrologically foretold? It is potentially foretold by the aeon of the Fishes (>--<) then beginning, and in fact by the Apocalypse. Cf. my argument in Aion, ch. VI.; also Rev. 20:7: "And when the thousand years are expired, Satan shall be loosed out of his prison."

QUESTION 1 4·

1 622

What do you mean by a divine unconsciousness" in ''Answer to fob" (footnote on page 383)? Is God more limited than man? · This is just the trouble. From Job it is quite obvious that Yahweh behaves like a man with inferior consciousness and an absolute lack of moral self-reflection. In this respect God-image is more limited than man. Therefore God must incarnate.

QUESTION 15. One of fob's greatest problems was: Can I believe in a just God? Individuation, «the Christification of many," the solution given in "Answer to fob" [p. 470 ], does not do justice to fob's question. Did not fob want meaning, a good God and not simply individuation? He was concerned with metaphysical and theological issues, and the modern fob is too, and just as man cannot live by bread alone, so is he unlikly to feel that he can live by individuation alone which, at its most successful, would appear to be little more than a preparatory process enabling him to face these issues more objectively. 162 3 Job wanted justice. He saw that he could not obtain it. Yahweh cannot be argued with. He is unreflecting power. What else is left to Job but to shut his mouth? He does not dream of individuation, but he knows what kind of God he is dealing with. It is certainly not Job drawing further conclusions but God. He sees that incarnation is unavoidable because man's insight is a step ahead of him. He must "empty himself of his Godhead and assume the shape of the 8ovAo<;," 18 i.e., man is his lowest form of existence, in order to obtain the jewel which man possesses in his self-reflection. 13

[Cf. Philippians

6.]

JUNG AND RELIGIOUS BELIEF

162 4

'Why is Yahweh, the omnipotent creator, so keen to have his "slave," body and soul, even to the point of admitted jealousy? Why do you say "by individuation alone"? Individuation is the life in God, as mandala psychology clearly shows. Have you not read my later books? You can see it in every one of them. The symbols of the self coincide with those of the Deity. The self is not the ego, it symbolizes the totality of man and he is obviously not whole without God. That seems to be what is meant by incarnation and incidentally by individuation.

3· Answers to Questions from the Rev. David Cox14 I

This question concerned ]ung's statement in Two Essays on Analytical Psychology (par. 327) that Western culture has no name or concept for the «union of opposites by the middle path" which could be compared to the concept of Tao. It was suggested that the Christian doctrine of justification by faith is such a concept. 1625 Not being a theologian I cannot see a connection between the doctrine of justification and Tao. Tao is the cooperation of opposites, bright-dark, dry-humid, hot-cold, south-north, dragon-tiger, etc., and has nothing to do with moral opposites or with a reconciliation between the Summum Bonum and the devil. Christian doctrine-so far as I know-does not recognize dualism as the constitution of Tao, but Chinese philosophy does. 1 626 It is certainly true that natural man always tries to increase what seems "good" to him and to abolish "evil." He depends upon his consciousness, which, however, may be crossed by "conscience" or by some unconscious intention. This factor can occasionally be stronger than consciousness, so that it cannot be fought. \Ve are very much concerned in psychotherapy with such cases. 1 62 7 The "Will of God" often contradicts conscious principles however good they may seem. Penitence or remorse follows the deviation from the superior will. The result is-if not a chronic conflict-a coniunctio oppositorum in the form of the symbol ( symbolum = the two halves of a broken coin), the expression of totality. 1 628 I did not know that you understand Christ as the new centre [Philp, pp. 226-39. (Aug. I95i·l The questions were not directly quoted because of the personal way in which some of them were framed.]

XII. PSYCHOLOGY AND RELIGION

of the individual. Since this centre of the individual appears empirically as a union of opposites (usually a quaternity), Christ must be beyond moral conflict, thus representing ultimate decision. This conception coincides absolutely with my view of the self ( = Tao, nirdvandva). But since the self includes my consciousness as well as my unconscious, my ego is an integral part of it. Is this also your view of Christ? If this should be so, I could completely agree with you. Life then becomes a dangerous adventure, because I surrender to a power beyond the opposites, to a superior or divine factor, without argument. His supreme decision may be what I call good or what I call bad, as it is unlimited. What is the difference between my behaviour and that of an animal fulfilling the will of God unreservedly? The only difference I can see is that I am conscious of, and reflect on, what I am doing. "If thou knowest what thou art doing, thou art blessed." 15 You have acted. I 629 (Unjust steward.) This is Gnostic morality but not that of the decalogue. The true servant of God runs risks of no mean order. Entendu.' Thus, at God's command, Hosea marries a whore. It is not beyond the bounds of possibility that such orders could be issued even in modern times. Who is ready to obey? And what about the fact that anything coming from the unconscious is expressed in a pe:::uliar language (words, thoughts, feelings, impulses) that might be misinterpreted? These questions are not meant as arguments against the validity of your view. They merely illustrate the enormity of the risk. I ventilate them only to make sure we really believe in a Christ beyond good and. evil. I am afraid of unreflecting optimism and of secret loopholes, as for instance, "Oh, you can trust in the end that everything will be all right." I d est: "God is good" (and not beyond good and evil). Why has God created consciousness and reason and doubt, if complete surrender and obedience to his will is the ultima ratio? He was obviously not content with animals only. He wants reflecting beings who are at the same time capable of surrendering themselves to the primordial creative darkness of his will, unafraid of the consequences. I 63o I cannot help seeing that there is much evidence in primitive Christianity for your conception of Christ, but none in the later development of the Church. Nevertheless there are the seemingly unshakable scriptural testimonies to the essential goodness of God and Christ and there is-to my knowledge-no positive statement in favour of a beyond-good-and-evil conception, not even an implied Sl

[Codex Bezae to Luke 6: 4.]

720

JUNG AND RELIGIOUS BELIEF

r63r

one. This seems to me to be a wholly modern and new interpretation of a revolutionary kind, at least in view of the Summum Bonum, as you add the ~lalum and transcend both. In this I completely agree with you. I only want to make sure that we understand each other when we reach the conclusion that man's true relation to God must include both love and fear to make it complete. If both are true, we can be sure that our relation to him is adequate. The one relativizes the other: in fear we may hope, in love we may distrust. Both conditions appeal to our consciousness, reflection, and reason. Both our gifts come into their own. But is this not a relativization of complete surrender? Or at least an acceptance after an internal struggle? Or a fight against God that can be won only if he himself is his advocate against himself, as Job understood it? And is this not a tearing asunder of God's original unity by man's stubborness? A disruption sought by God himself, or by the self itself? As I know from my professional experience, the self does indeed seek such issues because it seeks consciousness, which cannot exist without discrimination (differentiation, separation, opposition, contradiction, discussion). The self is empirically in a condition we call unconscious in our three-dimensional world. \Vhat it is in its transcendental condition, we do not know. So far as it becomes an object of cognition, it undergoes a process of discrimination and so does everything emanating from it. The discrimination is intellectual, emotional, ethical, etc. That means: the self is subject to our free decision thus far. But as it transcends our cognition, we are i~s objects or slaves or children or sheep that cannot hut obey the shepherd. Are we to emphasize consciousness and freedom of judgment or lay more stress on obedience? In the former case can we fulfil the divine will to consciousness, and in the latter the primordial instinct of obedience? Thus we represent the intrinsic Yea and Nay of the opus divinum of creatio continua. Âˇwe ourselves are in a certain respect "beyond good and evil." This is very dangerous indeed ( cf. Nietzsche), but no argument against the truth. Yet our inadequacy, dullness, inertia, stupidity, etc. are equally true. Both are aspects of one and the same being. Accordingly the alchemists thought of their opus as a continuation and perfection of creation, whereas the modern psychological attempt confronts the opposites and submits to the tension of the conflict: "Expectans naturae operationem, quae lentissima est, aequo animo," 16 to quote an old master. V\' e know that a 16

["Patiently awaiting a work of nature, which is very slow.")

XII. PSYCHOLOGY AND

RELIGIO~

tertium quid develops out of an opposition, partly aided by our conscious effort, partly by the co-operation of the unconscious effort, partly by the co-operation of the unconscious (the alchemists add: Deo concedente). The result of this opus is the symbol, in the last resort the self. The alchemists understood it to he as much physical as spiritual, being the filius macrocosmi, a parallel to Christ, the vto~ TOV O:v8pdnrov. The Gnostics understood the serpent in paradise to be the A6yo.,-, and in the same \vay the alchemists believed that their filius philosophorum was the chthonic serpens mercurialis transformed (taking the serpent on the a-mvp6~ [cross] as an allegoria ad C hristum spectans) .17 Their naivete shows a hesitation (which I feel too) to identify the self with Christ. Their symbol is the lapis. It is incorruptible, semel factus (from the increatum, the primordial chaos), everlasting, our tool and master at the same time ("art ifex non est magister lapidis, sed pot ius eius minister"), 18 the redeemer of creation in general, of minerals, plants, animals, and of man's physical imperfection. Hence its synonyms: panacea, alexipharmacum, medicina catholic a, etc. (and hellebore, because it heals insanity). 1 632 Of course if you understand Christ by definition as a complexio oppositorum, the equation is solved. But you are confronted with a terrific historical counter-position. As it concerns a point of supreme importance, I wanted to clarify the problem beyond all doubt. This may explain and excuse my long-winded argument. II

In ((Answer to job" ]ung claims that Jesus ((incarnates only the light>' side of God. This may represent the way in which jesus is thought of by the majority of Western men and women today, but is it not false to the New Testament and to Christian thought over the centuries? 1 633 You must consider that I am an alienist and practical psychologist, who has to take things as they are understood, not as they could or should be understood. Thus the Gnostics thought that Christ had cut off his shadow, and I have never heard that he embodies evil as Yahweh explicitly does. Catholic as well as Protestant teaching insists that Christ is without sin. As a scientist I am chiefly concerned with what is generally believed, although I can't help being impressed by the fact that the ecclesiastical doctrines 17 1'

[Cf. Psychology and Alchemy, C.W., vol. 12, fig. 217.] ["The artifex is not the master of the stone, but rather its minister."]

722

JC:--IG AXD RELIGIOllS BELIEF

1634

do not do justice to certain facts in the New Testament. I have however to consider the consensus omnium that Christ is without the macula peccati. If I should say that Christ contains some evil I am sure to have the Churches against me ..-\s a psychologist I cannot deal with the theological conception of truth. My field is people's common beliefs. Since I am not chiefly concerned with theology but rather with the layman's picture of theological concepts (a fact you must constantly bear in mind), I am liable to make many apparent contradictions (like the medieval mind acquainted with funny stories about Jesus, as you rightly point out). The Gospels do indeed give many hints pointing to the dark side, but this has not affected the picture of the lumen de lumine, which is the general view. I am thinking-as a psychologist-about all sorts of erroneous notions which do exist in spite of higher criticism and accurate exegesis and all the achievement-s of theological research. l\1 y object is the general condition of the Christian mind, and not theology, where I am wholly incompetent. Because the lumen de lumine idea is paramount in the layman's mind, I dare to point to certain scriptural evidence (accessible to the layman) shov.Âˇing another picture of Christ. I am certain that your conception of Christ would have a hard time getting through certain thick skulls. It is the same with the idea of evil contained in God. I am concerned with dogmas, prejudices, illusions. and errors and every kind of doubt in the layman's mind, and I try to get a certain order into that chaos by the means accessible to a layman, i.e., to myself as a representative of the humble "ignoramus." III

This question deals with the relationship between faith and projection. Has fun[:, in his writin[:, treated faith as being connected with an outward form of 1eligionJ 1

635

This I do not properly understand. Of course "faith" is a relationship to projected contents. But I cannot see how that "corresponds for all practical purposes to a withdrawal of the projection." Faith on the contrary-as it seems to me-maintains the conviction that the projection is a reality. For instance, I project saintly qualities on to somebody. My faith maintains and enhances this projection and creates a worshipful attitude on my part. But it is quite possible that the bearer of the projection is nothing of the kind, perhaps he is even an unpleasant hypocrite. Or I may project,

723

XII. PSYCHOLOGY AND RELIGION

1636

1637

i.e., hypostatize, a religious conviction of a certain kind which I maintain with faith and fervour. Where is the "withdrawal of the projection''? In case of doubt you had better refer to Symbols of Transformation. Once I was at the beginning of things, at the time when I separated from Freud in 1912. I found myself in great inner difficulties, as I had no notion of the collective unconscious or of archetypes. My education was based chiefly on science, with a modest amount of the humanities. It was a time of Sturm und Drang. The so-called Psychology of the U nconscious 1 !' was an intuitive leap into the dark and contains no end of inadequate formulations and unfinished thoughts. I make a general distinction between "religion" and a "creed" for the sake of the layman, since it is chiefly he who reads my books and not the academic scholar. He (the scholar) is not interested in the layman's mind. :\.s a rule he nurses resentments against psychology. I must repeat again: I am a psychologist and thus people's minds interest me in the first place, although I am keen to learn the truth the specialist produces. The layman identifies religion with a creed, that is, with the "things done in the church." Thus Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, etc. are simply religions like Christianity. That there is a genuine inner life, a communion with transcendental powers, a possibility of religious experience is mere hearsay. Nor are the churches over-sympathetic to the view that the alpha and omega of religion is the subjective individual experience, but put community in the first place, without paying attention to the fact that the more people there are the less individuality there is. To be alone with God is highly suspect, and, mind you, it is, because the will of God can be terrible and can isolate you from your family and your friends and, if you are courageous or foolish enough, you may end up in the lunatic asylum. And yet how can there be religion without the experience of the divine will? Things are comparatively easy as long as God wants nothing but the fulfilment of his laws, but what if he wants you to break them, as he may do equally well? Poor Hosea could believe in the symbolic nature of his awkward marriage, but what about the equally poor little doctor who has to swear his soul away to save a human life? He cannot e\Âˇen begin to point out what an affliction his act of lying is, although in his solitude with God he may feel justified. 19

[The translation (Igi6) of the original (1912) Transformation.]

version of Symbols of

J C:\'G

.-\:\"0 RELIGIOl'S BELIEF

But in case of discovery he has to face the ignominious consequences of his deed and nobodv will believe him to be a witness for the divine will. To be God's \·oice is not a social function anymore. Si pan·a licet componere magnis-what did I get for my serious struggle over fob, which I had postponed for as long as possible? I am regarded as blasphemous, contemptible, a fiend, whose name is mud. It fell to mv lot to collect the victims of the Summum Bonum and use my mm poor means to help them. But I could not say that a church of any denomination has encouraged my endeavours. You are one of the l'ery few who admit the complexio oppositorum in the Deity. ( Cusanus does not seem to ha\·e really known what he was talking about, nor anybody else in those days, othenvise he would ha\·e been roasted long ago.) That is the reason why I don't identify religion with a creed. I can haYe a real communion only with those who ha\·e the same or similar religious experience, but not with the beliewrs in the \\"ord, who ha\·e ne\·er e\·en taken the trouble to understand its implications and expose themselves to the divine will unreserYedly. They use the \\' ord to protect themselYes against the will of God. 1\othing shields you better against the solitude and forlornness of the divine experience than community. It is the best and safest substitute for individual responsibility. 1 638 The self or Christ is present in everybody a priori, but as a rule in an unconscious condition to begin with. But it is a definite experience of later life, when this fact becomes conscious. It is not really understood by teaching or suggestion. It is only real when it happens, and it can happen only when you withdraw your projections from an outward historical or metaphysical Christ and thus wake up Christ within. This does not mean that the unconscious self is inacti\'e, only that we do not understand it. The self (or Christ) cannot become conscious and real without the withdrawal of external projections ..-\n act of introjection is needed, i.e., the realization that the self liYes in you and not in an external figure separated and different from yourself. The self has always been, and will be, your innermost centre and periphery, your scintilla and punctum solis. It is e·en biologically the archetype of order and-dynamically-the source of life. IV

Here the question is concerned with ] unr;' s objections to the l'iew that God is the Summum Bonum and sin is a priYatio boni.

725

XII. PSYCHOLOGY AND RELIGION

\V ell, I have noticed that it seems to be a major difficulty for the theological mind to accept the fact that ( 1) "good" and "evil" are man-made judgments. Somebody's "good" may be bad or evil for another et vice versa. ( 2) One cannot speak of "good'' if one does not equally speak of "evil," any more than there can be an "above" without a "below," or "day" without "night." (3) The privatio boni appears to me a syllogism. If '·good" and ovuia are one without an equally valid counterpart, then "good" is also a JLTJ ov because the term "good" has lost its meaning; it is just "being" and evil is just "not-being" and the term means "nothing." Of course you are free to call "nothing'' evil, but nothing is just nothing and cannot bear another name, making it into "something." Something non-existing has no name and no quality. The privatio boni suggests that evil is JLTJ ov, not-being or nothing. It is not even a shadow. There remains only the ov, but it is not good, since there is no "bad." Thus the epithet "good" is redundant. You can call God the Summum, but not the Bonum, since there is nothing else different from "being," from the Summum qua being! Although the privatio boni is not the invention of the Church Fathers, the syllogism was most welcome to them on account of the Manichaean danger of dualism. Yet without dualism there is no cognition at all, because discrimination is impossible. 1 64° I have never [as you state J understood from my study of the Fathers that God is the highest good with reference to man, no matter what he is in himself. This is certainly new to me. Obviously my critique of the Summum Bonum does not apply in this case. The Bonum then would be an anthropomorphic judgment, "God is good for me," leaving it an open question whether he is the same for other people. If one assumes him to be a complexio oppositorum, i.e., beyond good and evil, it is possible that he may appear equally well as the source of evil which you believe to be ultimately good for man. I am convinced, as I have seen it too often to doubt it, that an apparent evil is really no evil at all if you accept and obediently live it as far as possible, but I am equally convinced that an apparent good is in reality not always good at all but wholly destructive. If this were not the case, then everything would be ultimately good, i.e., good in its essence, and e\·il would not really exist, as it would be a merely transitory appearance. In other words: the term "good" has lost its meaning, and the only safe basis of cognition is our world of experience, in which the power of evil is very real and not at all a mere appearance. One can and does 1 639

726

JUNG AND RELIGIOUS BELIEF

1641

cherish an optimistic hope that ultimately, in spite of grave doubts, "all will be well." As I am not making a metaphysical judgment, I cannot help remarking that at least in our empirical world the opposites are inexorably at work and that, without them, this world would not exist. We cannot e\·en conceive of a thing that is not a form of energy, and energy is inevitably based upon opposites. I must however pay attention to the psychological fact that, so far as we can make out, individuation is a natural phenomenon, and in a way an inescapable goal, which we have reason to call good for us, because it liberates us from the otherwise insoluble conflict of opposites (at least to a noticeable degree). It is not invented by man, but Nature herself produces its archetypal image. Thus the credo "in the end all will be well" is not without its psychic foundation. But it is more than questionable whether this phenomenon is of any importance to the world in general, or only to the individual who has reached a more complete state of consciousness, to the "redeemed" man in accordance with our Christian tenet of eternal damnation. "l\Iany are called, but few are chosen" is an authentic logion and not characteristic of Gnosticism alone.

v ]ung has been given the title «Gnostic" which he has rejected. This term has probably been used about him [and his system J because he appears to believe that salvation is for the few and that the many cannot and ought not to attempt individuation. Is it possible that he is a «Gnostic" in this sense? 164 2 The designation of my "system" as "Gnostic" is an invention of my theological critics. ~Ioreover I have no "system." I am not a philosopher, merely an empiricist. The Gnostics have the merit of having raised the problem of m'JflEv TO KaKiw; [whence evil?]. Valentinus as well as Basilides are in my view great theologians, who tried to cope with the problems raised by the inevitable influx of the collective unconscious, a fact clearly portrayed by the ''gnostic" gospel of St. John and by St. Paul, not to mention the Book of Revelation, and e\·en by Christ himself (unjust steward and Codex Bezae to Luke 6: 4). In the style of their time they hypostatized their ideas as metaphysical entities. Psychology does not hypostatize, but considers such ideas as psychological statements about, or models of, essential unconscious factors inaccessible to

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immediate experience. This is about as far as scientific understanding can go. In our days there are plenty of people who are unable to believe a statement they cannot understand, and they appreciate the hdp psychology can give them by showing them that human behaviour is deeply influenced hy numinous archetypes. That gives them some understanding of why and how the religious factor plays an important role. It also gives them ways and means of recognizing the operation of religious ideas in their own psyche. I must confess that I myself could find access to religion only through the psychological understanding of inner experiences, whereas traditional religious interpretations left me high and dry. It was only psychology that helped me to overcome the fatal impressions of my youth that everything untrue, even immoral, in our ordinary empirical world must be believed to be the eternal truth in religion. Above all, the killing of a human victim to placate the senseless wrath of a God who had created imperfect beings unable to fulfil his expectations poisoned my whole religion. 1\obody knew an answer. "With God all things are possible." Just so! As the perpetrator of incredible things he is himself incredible, and yet I was supposed to believe what every fibre of my body refused to admit! There are a great many questions which I could elucidate only by psychological understanding. I loved the Gnostics in spite of everything, because they recognized the necessity of some further wisonnement, entirely absent in the Christian cosmos. They were at least human and therefore understandable. But I have no yvwcnc; rov Owv. I know the reality of religious experience and of psychological models which permit a limited understanding. I have Gnosis so far as I have immediate experience, and my models are greatly helped by the representations collectives of all religions. But I cannot see why one creed should possess the unique and perfect truth. Each creed claims this prerogative, hence the general disagreement! This is not very helpful. Something must be wrong. I think it is the immodesty of the claim to god-almightiness of the belie\Âˇers, which compensates their inner doubt. Instead of basing themsehÂˇes upon immediate experience they believe in words for want of something better. The sacrificium intellectus is a sweet drug for man's all-embracing spiritual laziness and inertia. I owe you quite a number of apologies for the fact that my layman's mental attitude must be excruciatingly irritating to your point of view. But you know, as a psychologist I am not concerned with theology directly, but rather with the incompetent general pub-

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lie and its erroneous and faulty convictions, which are however just as real to it as their competent views are to the theologians. I am continually asked "theological" questions by my patients, and when I say that I am only a doctor and they should ask the theologian, then the regular answer is, "Oh, yes, we have done so," or "we do not ask a priest because we get an answer we already know, which explains nothing." I 645 \Veil this is the reason why I have to try for better or worse to help my patients to some kind of understanding at least. It gives them a certain satisfaction as it has done to me, although it is admittedly inadequate. But to them it sounds as if somebody were speaking their language and understanding their questions which they take very seriously indeed. Once, for instance, it was a very important question to me to discover how far modern Protestantism considers that the God of the Old Testament is identical with the God of the New Testament. I asked two university profe;;sors. They did not answer my letter. The third (also a professor) said he didn't know. The fourth said, "Oh, that is quite easy. Yahweh is a somewhat more archaic conception contrasted with the more differentiated view of the New Testament." I said to him, "That is exactly the kind of psychologism you accuse me of." l\fy question must have been singularly inadequate or foolish. But I do not know why. I am speaking for the layman's psychology. The layman is a reality and his questions do exist. ;\fy ".-\.nswer to Job" voices the questions of thousands, but the theologians don't answer, contenting themselves with dark allusions to my layman's ignorance of Hebrew, higher criticism, Old Testament exegesis, etc., but there is not a single answer. A Jesuit profe~sor of theology asked me rather indignantly how I could suggest that the Incarnation has remained incomplete. I said, "The human being is born under the macula peccati. Neither Christ nor his mother suffers from original sin. They are therefore not human, but superhuman, a sort of God." What did he answer? Nothing. 1 646 \Vhy is that so? My layman's rea~oning is certainly imperfect, and my theological knowledge regrettably meagre, hut not as bad as all that, at least I hope not. But I do know something about the psychology of man now and in the past, and as a psychologist I raise the questions I have been asked a hundred times by my patients and other laymen. Theology would certainly not suffer by paying attention. I know you are too busv to do it. I am all the more anxious to prevent avoidable mistakes and I shall feel

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deeply obliged to you if you take the trouble of showing me where I am wrong. 1 64 7 Gnosis is characterized by the hypostatizing of psychological apperceptions, i.e., by the integration of archetypal contents beyond the revealed "truth" of the Gospels. Hippolytus still considered classical Greek philosophy along with Gnostic philosophies as perfectly possible views. Christian Gnosis to him was merely the best and superior to all of them. The people who call me a Gnostic cannot understand that I am a psychologist, describing modes of psychic behaviour precisely like a biologist studying the instinctual activities of insects. He does not believe in the tenets of the bee's philosophy. When I show the parallels between dreams and Gnostic fantasies I believe in neither. They are just facts one does not need to believe or to hypostatize. An alienist is not necessarily crazy because he describes and analyses the delusions of lunatics, nor is a scholar studying the Tripitaka necessarily a Buddhist. 4Âˇ Reply to a Letter from the Rev. David Cox'" 0

The crux of this question is: 'Within your own personality." "Christ" can be an external reality (historical and metaphysical) or an archetypal image or idea in the collective unconscious pointing to an unknown background. I would understand the former mainly as a projection, but not the latter, because it is immediately evident. It is not projected upon anything, therefore there is no projection. Only, "faith" in Christ is different from faith in anyone else, since in this case, "Christ" being immediately evident, the word "faith," including or alluding to the possibility of doubt, seems too feeble a word to characterize that powerful presence from which there is no escape. A general can say to his soldiers, "You must have faith in me," because one might doubt him. But you cannot say to a man lying wounded on the battlefield, "You ought to believe that this a real battle," or "Be sure that you are up against the enemy." It is just too obvious. Even the historical Jesus began to speak of "faith" because he saw that his disciples had no immediate evidence. Instead they had to believe, while he himself being identical with God had no need to "have faith in God." 1 649 As one habitually identifies the "psyche" with what one knows of it, it is assumed that one can call certain (supposed or believed) 1 648

[Philp, pp. 239-50. (25 Sept. 1957.)]

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I 6so

I65I

I 65 2

I653

metaphysical entities non-psychic. Being a responsible scientist I am unable to pass such a judgment, for all I know of regular religious phenomena seems to indicate that they are psychic events. Moreover I do not know the full reach of the psyche, because there is the limitless extent of the unconscious. "Christ"" is definitely an archetypal image ( I don't add "only") and that is all I actually know of him. As such he belongs to the (collective) foundations of the psyche. I identify him therefore with what I call the self. The self rules the whole of the psyche. I think our opinions do not differ essentially. You seem to have trouble only with the theological (and self-inflicted) devaluation of the psyche, which you apparently believe to be ultimately definable. If my identification of Christ with the archetype of the self is valid, he is, or ought to be, a complexio oppositorum. Historically this is not so. Therefore I was profoundly surprised by your statement that Christ contains the opposites. Between my contention and historical Christianity there stretches that deep abyss of Christian dualism-Christ and the Devil, good and evil, God and Creation. "Beyond good and evil" simply means: we pass no moral judgment. But in fact nothing is changed. The same is true when we state that whatever God is or does is good. Since God does everything (even man created by him is his instrument) everything is good, and the term "good" has lost its meaning. "Good" is a relative term. There is no good without bad. I am afraid that even revealed truth has to evolve. Everything living changes. We should not be satisfied with unchangeable traditions. The great battle that began with the dawn of consciousness has not reached its climax with any particular interpretation, apostolic, Catholic, Protestant, or otherwise. Even the highly conservative Catholic Church has overstepped its ancient rule of apostolic authenticity with the Assumptio Beatae Virginis. According to what I hear from Catholic theologians, the next step would be the Coredemptrix. This obvious recognition of the female element is a very important step foward. It means psychologically the recognition of the unconscious, since the representative of the collective unconscious is the anima, the archetype of all divine mothers (at least in the masculine psyche) . The equivalent on the Protestant side would be a confrontation with the unconscious as the counterpart or consort of the ma~culine Logos. The hitherto valid symbol of the supreme spiritual structure

73 1

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was Trinity Satan, the so-called 3 I structure, corresponding to three conscious functions versus the one unconscious, so-called inferior function; or I 3 if the conscious side is understood as one versus the co-called inferior or chthonic triad, mythologically characterized as three mother figures. ~ I suppose that the negative evaluation of the unconscious has something to do with the fact that it has been hitherto represented by Satan, while in reality it is the female aspect of man's psyche and thus not wholly evil in spite of the old saying: T'ir a Deo creatus, mulier a simia Dei. I 654 It seems to me of paramount importance that Protestantism should integrate psychological experience, as for instance Jacob Boehme did. With him God does not only contain love, but, on the other side and in the same measure, the fire of wrath, in which Lucifer himself dwells. Christ is a revelation of his love, but he can manifest his wrath in an Old Testament way just as well, i.e., in the form of evil. Inasmuch as out of evil good may come, and out of good evil, we do not know whether creation is ultimately good or a regrettable mistake and God's suffering. It is an ineffable mystery. At any rate we are not doing justice either to nature in general or to our own human nature when we deny the immensity of evil and suffering and turn our eyes from the cruel aspect of creation. Evil should be recognized and one should not attribute tht:: existence of evil to man's sinfulness. Yahweh is not offended by being feared. I 655 It is quite understandable why it was an Ev.:YyyeA.ov [evangel, "good tidings"] to learn of the bonitas Dei and of his son. It was known to the ancients that the cognito suiÂˇ ipsius [self-knowledgef~ was a prerequisite for this, not only in the Graeco-Roman world but also in the Far East. It is to the individual aptitude that the man Jesus owes his apotheosis: he became the symbol of the self under the aspect of the infinite goodness, which was certainly the symbol most needed in ancient civilization (as it is still needed today). I 6s6 It can be considered a fact that the dogmatic figure of Christ is the result of a condensation process from various sources. One of the main origins is the age-old god-man of Egypt: Osiris-Horus and his four sons. It was a remodeling of the unconscious archetype

[Cf. "The Phenomenology of the Spirit in Fairytales" (C.W., vol. g, i), pars. 425f., 436ff.; A ion, par. 35 I; and "The Spirit Mercuri us" (C.W., vol. I 3), pars. 2 7off.] "~ [Cf. "The Spirit Mercuri us," par. 30 z.]

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hitherto projected upon a divine non-human being. By embodying itself in a historical man it came nearer to consciousness, but in keeping with the mental capacity of the time it remained as if suspended between God and man, between the need for good and the fear of evil. Any doubt about the absolute bonitas Dei would have led to an immediate regression to the former pagan state, i.e., to the amorality of the metaphysical principle. 1657 Since then two thousand years have passed. In this time we have learned that good and evil are categories of our moral judgment, therefore relative to man. Thus the way was opened for a new model of the self. Moral judgment is a necessity of the human mind. The Christ ( o Xpurro<;) is the Christian model that expresses the self, as the AvOpwrro<; is the corresponding Egypto-Judaic formula. Moral qualification is withdrawn from the deity. The Catholic Church has almost succeeded in adding femininity to the masculine Trinity. Protestantism is confronted with the psychological problem of the unconscious. 1 658 It is, as far as I can see, a peculiar process extending over at least four thousand years of mental evolution. It can be contemplated in a "euhemeristic" way as a development of man's unders:anding of the supreme powers beyond his control. [The process consists of the following stages: J ( I ) Gods. ( 2) :\ supreme Deity ruling the gods and demons. ( 3) God shares our human fate, is betrayed, killed or dies, and is resurrected again. There is a feminine counterpart dramatically invohÂˇed in God's fate. ( 4) God becomes man in the flesh and thus historical. He is identified with the abstract idea of the Summum Bonum and loses the feminine counterpart. The female deity is degraded to an ancillary position (Church) . Consciousness hegins to prevail against the unconscious. This is an enormously important step forward in the emancipation of consciousness and in the liberation of thought from its involvement in things. Thus the foundation of science is laid, but on the other hand, that of atheism and materialism. Both are inevitable consequences of the basic split between spirit and matter in Christian philosophy, which proclaimed the redemption of the spirit from the body and its fetters. ( 5) The whole metaphysical world is understood as a psychic structure projected into the sphere of the unknown. 1 659 The danger of this viewpoint is exaggerated scepticism and rationalism, since the original "supreme powers., are reduced to mere representations over which one assumes one has complete con733

XII. PSYCHOLOGY AND RELIGION

I66o

66 I

trol. This leads to a complete negation of the supreme powers (scientific materialism). The other way of looking at it is from the standpoint of the archetype. The original chaos of multiple gods evolves into a sort of monarchy, and the archetype of the self slowly asserts its central position as the archetype of order in chaos. One God rules supreme but apart from man. It begins to show a tendency to relate itself to consciousness through a process of penetration: the humanizing effect of a feminine intercession, expressed for instance by the Isis intrigue. In the Christian myth the Deity, the self, penetrates consciousness almost completely, without any visible loss of power and prestige. But in time it becomes obvious that the Incarnation has caused a loss among the supreme powers: the indispensable dark side has been left behind or stripped off, and the feminine aspect is missing. Thus a further act of incarnation becomes necessary. Through atheism, materialism, and agnosticism, the powerful yet one-sided aspect of the Summum Bonum is weakened, so that it cannot keep out the dark side, and incidentally the feminine factor, any more. "Antichrist" and "Devil" gain the ascendancy: God asserts his power through the revelation of his darkness and destructiveness. Man is merely instrumental in carrying out the divine plan. Obviously he does not want his own destruction but is forced to it by his own inventions. He is entirely unfree in his actions because he does not yet understand that he is a mere instrument of a destructive superior will. From this paradox he could learn that-nolens volens-he serves a supreme power, and that supreme powers exist in spite of his denial. As God lives in everybody in the form of the scintilla of the self, man could see his "daemonic," i.e., ambivalent, nature in himself and thus he could understand how he is penetrated by God or how God incarnates in man. Through his further incarnation God becomes a fearful task for man, who must now find ways and means to unite the divine opposites in himself. He is summoned and can no longer leave his sorrows to somebody else, not even to Christ, because it was Christ that has left him the almost impossible task of his cross. Christ has shown how everybody will be crucified upon his destiny, i.e., upon his self, as he was. He did not carry his cross and suffer crucifixion so that we could escape. The bill of the Christian era is presented to us: we are living in a world rent in two from top to bottom; we are confronted with the H-bomb and we have to face our own shadows. Obviously God does not want us to remain little 734

JUNG AND RELIGIOUS BELIEF

1662

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1 664

children looking out for a parent who will do their job for them. We are cornered by the supreme power of the incarnating Will. God really wants to become man, even if he rends him asunder. This is so no matter what we say. One cannot talk the H-bomb or Communism out of the world. We are in the soup that is going to be cooked for us, whether we claim to have invented it or not. Christ said to his disciples "Ye are gods." This word becomes painfully true. If God incarnates in the empirical man, man is confronted with the divine problem. Being and remaining man he has to find an answer. It is the question of the opposites, raised at the moment when God was declared to be good only. Where then is his dark side? Christ is the model for the human answers and his symbol is the cross, the union of the opposites. This will be the fate of man, and this he must understand if he is to survive at all. 'Ve are threatened with universal genocide if we cannot work out the way of salvation by a symbolic death. In order to accomplish his task, man is inspired by the Holy Ghost in such a way that he is apt to identify him with his own mind. He even runs the grave risk of believing he has a Messianic mission, and forces tyrannous doctrines upon his fellow-beings. He would do better to dis-identify his mind from the small voice within, from dreams and fantasies through which the divine spirit manifests itself. One should listen to the inner voice attentively, intelligently and critically (Probate spi1 it us .1 ), because the voice one hears is the infiuxus divinus consisting, as the Acts of fohn aptly state, of "right" and "left" streams, i.e., of opposites. 23 They have to be clearly separated so that their positive and negative aspects become visible. Only thus can we take up a middle position and discover a middle way. That is the task left to man, and that is the reason why man is so important to God that he decided to become a man himself. I must apologize for the length of this exposition. Please do not think that I am stating a truth. I am merely trying to present a hypothesis which might explain the bewildering conclusions resulting from the clash of traditional symbols and psychological experiences. I thought it best to put my cards on the table, so that you get a clear picture of my ideas. Although all this sounds as if it were a sort of theological speculation, it is in reality modern man's perplexity expressed in symbolic 2 3 [James, The Apocryphal New Testament, p. 255: "The Acts of Peter." Cf. "Transformation Symbolism in the Mass" (C.W., vol. 11), par. 429.]

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terms. It is the problem I so often had to deal with in treating the neuroses of intelligent patients. It can be expressed in a more scientific, psychological language; for instance, instead of using the term God you say "unconscious," instead of Christ "self," instead of incarnation "integration of the unconscious," instead of salvation or redemption "individuation," instead of crucifixion or sacrifice on the Cross "realization of the four functions or of "wholeness." I think it is no disadvantage to religious tradition if we can see how far it coincides with psychological experience. On the contrary it seems to me a most welcome aid in understanding religious traditions. I 665 A myth remains a myth even if certain people believe it to be the literal revelation of an eternal truth, but it becomes moribund if the living truth it contains ceases to be an object of belief. It is therefore necessary to renew its life from time to time through a new interpretation. This means re-adapting it to the changing spirit of the times. What the Church calls "prefigurations" refer to the original state of the myth, while the Christian doctrine represents a new interpretation and re-adaptation to a Hellenized world. A most interesting attempt at re-interpretation began in the eleventh century, 24 leading up to the schism in the sixteenth century. The Renaissance was no more a rejuvenation of antiquity than Protestantism was a return to the primitive Christianity: it was a new interpretation necessitated by the devitalization of the Catholic Church. I666 Today Christianity is devitalized by its remoteness from the spirit of the times. It s~ands in need of a new union with, or relation to, the atomic age, which is a unique novelty in history. The myth needs to be retold in a new spiritual language, for the new wine can no more be poured into the old bottles than it could in the Hellenistic age. Even conservative Jewry had to produce an entirely new version of the myth in its Cabalistic Gnosis. It is my practical experience that psychological understanding immediately revivifies the essential Christian ideas and fills them with the breath of life. This is because our worldly light, i.e., scientific knowledge and understanding, coincides with the symbolic statement of the myth, whereas previously we were unable to bridge the gulf between knowing and believing. I667 Coming back to your letter (pp. 2-3, 25 September) I must say that I could accept your definition of the Summum Bonum, 24

[Cf. A ion, pars,

39ff.]

JUNG AND RELIGIOUS BELIEF

r668

"Whatever God is, that is good," if it did not interfere with or twist our sense of good. In dealing with the moral nature of an act of God, we have either to suspend our moral judgment and blindly follow the dictates of this superior will, or we have to judge in a human fashion and call white white and black black. In spite of the fact that we scmetimes obey the superior will blindly and almost heroically, I do not think that this is the usual thing, nor is it commendable on the whole to act blindly, because we are surely expected to act with conscious moral reflection. It is too dangerously easy to avoid responsibility by deluding ourselves that our will is the will of God. We can be forcibly overcome by the latter, but if we are not we must use our judgment, and then we are faced with the inexorable fact that humanly speaking some acts of God are good and some bad, so much so that the assumption of a Summum Bonum becomes almost an act of hubris. If God can be understood as the perfect complexio oppositorum, so can Christ. I can agree with your view about Christ completely, only it is not the traditional but a very modern conception which is on the way to the desired new interpretation. I also agree with your understanding of Tao and its contrast to Christ, who is indeed the paradigm of the reconciliation of the divine opposites in man brought about in the process of individuation. Thus Christ stands for the treasure and the supreme "good." (In German "good" = gut, but the noun Gut also means "property" and "t~easure.")

r66g

r67o

When theology makes metaphysical assertions the conscience of the scientist cannot back it up. Since Christ never meant more to me than what I could understand of him, and since this understanding coincides with my empirical knowledge of the self, I have to admit that I mean the self in dealing with the idea of Christ. As a matter of fact I have no other access to Christ but the self, and since I do not know anything beyond the self I cling to his archetype. I say, "Here is the living and perceptible archetype which has been projected upon the man Jesus or has historically manifested itself in him." If this collective archetype had not been associated with Jesus he would have remained a nameless Zaddik. I actually prefer the term "self" because I am talking to Hindus as well as Christians, and I do not want to divide but to unite. Since I am putting my cards on the table, I must confess that I cannot detach a certain feeling of dishonesty from any metaphysical assertion-one may speculate but not assert. One cannot reach

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beyond one~elL and if somebody assures you he can reach beyond himself and his natural limitations, he overreaches himself and becomes immodest and untrue. I 671 This may be a deformation professionelle, the prejudice of a scientific conscience. Science is an honest-to-God attempt to get at the truth and its rule is neYer to assert more than one can prove within reasonable and defensible limits. This is my attitude in approaching the problem of religious experience. I 672 I am unable to emÂˇisage anything beyond the self, since it is-by definition-a borderline concept designating the unknown totality of man: there are no known limits to the unconscious. There is no reason what-.;oever why you should or should not call the beyond-self Christ or Buddha or Purusha or Tao or Khidr or Tifereth ..-\11 these terms are recognizable formulations of what I call the ''self." 1\IoreoYer I dislike the insistence upon a special name, since my human brethren are as good and as valid as I am. Why should their name-gi,Âˇing be less valid than mine? I673 It is not easy for a layman to get the desired theological information, because even the Church is not at one with herself in this respect. Who represents authentic Christianity? Thus the layman whether he likes it or not has to quote Protestant or Catholic statements pNe-mfle as Christian views because they are backed up by some authority. In my case I belieYe I have been careful in quoting my sources. I 674 You as a theologian are naturally interested in the best possible Yiew or explanation, while the psychologist is interested in all sorts of opinions because he wants to acquire some understanding of mental phenomenology and cares little for even the best possible metaphysical assertion, which is beyond human reach anyhow. The Yarious creeds are just so many phenomena to him, and he has no means of deciding about the truth or the ultimate validity of any metaphysical statement. I cannot select the "best" or the "ultimate" opinions because I do not know which kind of opinion to choose from which Church ..-\lso I do not care particularly where such opinions come from, and it is quite beyond my capacity to find out whether they are erroneous or not. I would be wrong only if I attributed, for instance, the idea of the conceptio immaculata to Prote~tanti~m or the sola fide standpoint to Catholicism. The many misunder~tandings attributed to me come into this category. In either ca~e it is plain to see that someone has been careless in his as,umptions. But if I attribute Ritschl's christological views to

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Protestantism, it is no error in spite of the fact that the Church of England does not subscribe to the opinions of l\lr. Ritschl or of 1\Ir. Barth. ~ 4 a I hope I have not inadvertently been guilty of some misquotation. I675 I can illustrate the problem by a typical instance. ~ly little essay on Eastern l\leditation~' deals with the popular tract Amit{/yur Dhyana Sutra, which is a relatively late and not very valuable Mahayana text. A critic objected to my choice: he could not see why I should take such an inconspicuous tract instead of a genuinely Buddhist and classical Pali text in order to present Buddhist thought. He entirely overlooked the fact that I had no intention whatever of expounding classical Buddhism, but that my aim was to analyse the psychology of this particular text. \\'hy should I not deal with Jacob Boehme or A.ngelus Silesius as Christian writers, even though they are not classical representatives either of Catholicism or of Protestantism? I676 A similar misunderstanding appears in your ,·iev,: that I am not doing justice to the ideal of community. "·henever possible I avoid ideals and much prefer realities. I ha\·e never found a community which would allow "full expression to the individual within it." Suppose the individual is going to speak the truth re,gardless of the feelings of everybody else: he would not only be the most abominable enfant terrible but might equally well cause a major catastrophe. Edifying examples of this can be observed at the meetings of Buchman's so-called Oxford Group l\lovement. At the expense of truth the individual has to "behave," i.e., suppress his reaction merely for the sake of Christian charity. "'hat if I should get up after a sermon about ideals and ask the parson how much he himself is able to live up to his admonitions? In my own case the mere fact that I am seriously interested in psychology ha.;; created a peculiar hostility or fear in certain circles. \\'hat has happened to those people in the Church, that is in a Christian community, who ventured to have a new idea? l\o community can escape the laws of mass psychology. I am critical of the community in the same way as I suspect the individual who builds his castle~ in Spain while anxiously avoiding the expression of his own convictions. I am shy of ideals which one preaches and never lives up to, simply because one cannot. I want to know rather what we 24 a

[Albrecht Ritschl ( I822-I88g) and Karl Barth ( I886-Ig68), resp. German and Swiss Protestant theologians.] 25 ["The Psychology of Eastern Meditation" ( C.W., vol. I I).]

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can liw. I want to build up a possible human life which carries through God's experiment and does not invent an ideal scheme knowing that it will never be fulfilled. Later I677

I678

I679

I68o

Letter~ 6

I am much obliged to you for telling me exactly what you think and for criticizing my blunt ways of thinking and writing (also of talking, I am afraid). It seems, however, to be the style of natural scientists: we simply state our proposition, assuming that nobody will think it to be more than a disputable hypothesis. We are so imbued with doubts concerning our assumptions that scepticism is taken for granted. We are therefore apt to omit the conventional captatio benevolentiae lectoris with its "\fith hesitation I submit . . . ," "I consider it a daring hypothesis . . . ," etc. \V e even forget the preamble: "This is the way I look at it . . . . " The case of the Jesuit~ 7 was that he put the direct question to me: "How on earth can you suggest that Christ was not human?"' The discussion was naturally on the dogmatic level, as there is no other basis on which this question can be answered. It is not a question of truth, because the problem itself is far beyond human judgment. My "Answer to Job" is merely a reconstruction of the psychology discernible in this and other Old Testament texts for the interested layman. He knows very little of Higher Criticism, which is historical and philological in the main, and it is but little concerned with the layman's reactions to the paradoxes and moral horrors of the Old Testament. He knows his Bible and hears the sermons of his parson or priest. As a Catholic he has had a dogmatic education. \Vhen talking of "Job" you must always remember that I am dealing with the psychology of an archetypal and anthropomorphic image of God and not with a metaphysical entity. As far as we can see, the archetype is a psychic structure with a life of its own to a certain extent. God in the Old Testament is a guardian of law and morality, yet is himself unjust. He is a moral paradox, unreflecting in an ethical sense. \Ve can perceive God in an infinite variety of images, yet all of them are anthropomorphic, otherwise they would not ~r, 27

[Philp, pp. 250-54. (I 2 Nov. [Cf. supra, par. I 645.]

I 95 7.)]

740

Jl"::'\G .\::'\0 RELIGIOCS BELIEF

get into our heads. The diYine paradox is the source of unending suffering to man. Job cannot a\·oid seeing it and thus he sees more than God himself. This explains why the God-image has to come down "into the flesh ... The paradox, expressed of course with many hesitations in the particularities of the myth and in the Catholic dogma, is clearly discernible in the fact that the ''Suffering Righteous man" is, historically speaking, an erroneous conception, not identical with the suffering God, because he is Jesus Christ, worshipped as a separate God , he is a mere prefiguration, painfully included in a triunitY. and not an ordinarY. man who is forced to accept the suffering of intolerable opposites he has not inYented. They were preordained. He is the Yictim, because he is capable of three-dimensional consciomness and ethical decision. (This is a bit condensed. Unlike Yahweh, man has self-reflection.) I don't know what Job is supposed to ha,·e seen. But it seems possible that he unconsciously anticipated the historical future, namely the evolution of the God-image. God had to become man. ~Ian ·s suffering does not deri,·e from his sins but from the maker of his imperfections, the paradoxical God. The righteous man is the instrument into which God enters in order to attain self-reflection and thus consciousness and rebirth as a diYine child trusted to the care of adult man. Kow this is not the statement of a tru:h, but the psychological reading of a mythological text- -a model constructed for the purpose of establishing the psychological linking together of its content~. ~Iy aim is to show what the results are when you apply modern psychology to such a text. Higher Criticism and Hebrew philology are obYiously superftuom, because it is simply a question of the text which the layman has under his eyes. The Christian religion has not been shaped by Higher Criticism. The trouble I haYe with mY academic reader is that he cannot see a psychic structure as a relatiYely autonomous entity, because he is under the illusion that he is dealing with a concept. But in reality it is a living thing. The archetype:; all ha,·e a life of their own which follows a biological pattern . .-\ Church that has eYoiYed a masculine Trinity will folio\\· the old pattern: 3 I, where I is a female and, if 3 = good, I as a woman will mediate between good and eYil, the latter being the devil and the shadow of the Trinity. The woman will ineYitably he the ~!other-Sister of the Son-God, with whom she will be united in thalamo, I.e., in the 1

I68I

I68 2

1 683

74I

XII. PSYCHOLOGY AND RELIGION

iEpo<> yO:fJ.o<;, quod est demonstratum by the second Encyclical concerning the .\ssumption."' I 684 A passionate discourse between the man Job and God will logicallY lead to a mutual rapprochement: God will be humanized, man will be ''divinized." Thus Job will be followed by the idea of the Incarnation of God and the redemption and apotheosis of man. This de\·elopment, however, is seriously impeded by the fact that the ''woman,'' as always, inevitably brings in the problem of the shadow. Therefore mulier tareat in ecclesia. The arch-sin the Catholic Church is ever after is sexuality, and the ideal par excellenre virginity, which puts a definite stop to life. But if life should insist on going on, the shadow steps in and sin becomes a serious problem, because the shadow cannot be left to eternal damnation any more. Consequently, at the end of the first millennium of the Christian aeon, as predicted in the Apocalypse, the world was suspected of being created by the de\·il. 29 The impressive and still living myth of the Holv Grail came to life with its two significant figures of Parsifal and ~Ierlin. :\.t the same time we observe an extraordinary development of alchemical philosophy with its central figure of the filius marrorosmi, a chthonic equivalent of Christ. I68s This was followed by the great and seemingly incurable schism of the Christian Church, and last but not least by the still greater and more formidable schism of the world towards the end of the second millennium. I 686 .\ psychological reading of the dominant archetypal images reveals a continuous series of psychological transformations, depicting the autonomous life of archetypes behind the scenes of consciousness. This hypothesis has been worked out to clarify and make comprehensible our religious history. The treatment of psychological troubles and the inability of my patients to understand theological interpretations and terminology have given me my motive. The necessities of psychotherapy have proved to me the immense importance of a religious attitude, which cannot be achieved without a thorough understanding of religious tradition, just as an individual's troubles cannot be understood and cured without a basic knowledge of their biographical antecedents. I have applied to the 2'

[Apostolic Constitution (".\funificentissimus Deus") of Pius XII, sec. 22: "The place of the bride whom the Father had espoused was in the heavenly courts." Sec. 33: " . . . on this day the Virgin Mother was taken up to her heaw·nly bridal-chamber."] 29 [Aion, pars. 225ff.]

742

JU~G

1687

1688

I68g

A="D RELIGIOCS BELIEF

God-image what I haYe learned from the recon;;;truction of so many human lives through a knowledge of their unconscious ..·\11 this is empirical and may ha,·e nothing to do with theology, if theology says so. But if theology should come to the conclusion that it'i tenets have something to do with the empirical human psyche, I establish a claim. I think that in those circumstances my opinion should be given a hearing. It cannot be argued on the ]e,·e] of metaphysical assertions. It can be criticized only on its own psychological level, regardless of whether it is a psychologically satisfactory interpretation of the facts or not. The "facts'' are the documented historical manifestations of the archetype, however "erroneous'' they may be. I have stated my point of view bluntly (for which I must ask your forgiveness!) in order to gi,·e you a fair chance to see it as clearly as possible. The end of your letter, where you deal with Christ, leaves me with a doubt. It looks to me as if you were trying to explain the empirical man Jesus, while I am envisaging the archetype of the Anthropos and its very general interpretation as a collective phenomenon and not as the best possible interpretation of an individual and historical person. Christianity as a whole is less concerned with the historical man Jesus and his somewhat doubtful biography than with the mythological . \nthropos or GodSon figure. It would be rather hazardous to attempt to analyse the historical Jesus as a human person. "Christ" appears from a much safer (because mnhological) background, which invites psychological elucidation. ~Ioreo,·er it is not the Jnvish rabbi and reformer Jesus, but the archetypal Christ \Vho touches upon the archetype of the Redeemer in everybody and carries conviction. My approach is certainly not theological and cannot he treated as a theologoumenon. It is essentially a psychological attempt based upon the archetypal, amoral God-image, which is not a concept but rather an irrational and phenomenal experience, an L" rhild. But in so far as theologians are also concerned with the adult human psyche (perhaps not as much as medical psychology;. I am convinced that it would be of ad,·antage to them to become acquainted with the psychological aspects of the Christian religion. I \vill not conceal the fact that theological thinking is verv difficult for me, from which I conclude that psychological thinking must be an equally laborious undertaking for the theologian. This may explain why I inundate you with such a long letter. When I see how China (and soon India) will lose her old culture under the impact of materialistic rationalism. I grow afraid 743

XII. PSYCHOLOGY AND

I6go

RELIGIO~

that the Christian \\rest will succumb to the same malady, simply because the old symbolic language is no longer understood and people cannot see any more where and how it applies. In Catholic countries anyone leaving the Church becomes frankly atheistic. In Protestant countries a small number become sectarians, and the others aYoid the churches for their cruelly boring and empty sermons. Not a few begin to believe in the State-not even knowing that they themselves are the State. The recent broadcasts of the B.B.C. 30 gi\'e a good picture of the educated layman's mind with regard to religion. What an understanding! .-\.11 due to the lack of a psychological standpoint, or so it seems to me. I am sorry that I am apparently a petra scandali. I do not mean to offend. Please accept my apologies for my bluntness. I am sincerely grateful to you for giving me your attention. Faithfully yours, C. G. JuNG 30 [Probably a senes of five talks on "Religion and Philosophy," by Robert C. Walton, ]. D. Mabbott, Alasdair Macintyre, and the Rev. F. A. Cockin, broadcast in Sept.-Oct. 195 7, according to information from the B. B.C.]

744

XIII ALCHEMICAL STUDIES

(related to Volumes 12, 13, and 14 of the Collected Works)

FOREWORD TO A CATALOGUE ON ALCHEMY 1 169 1

Alchemy is the forerunner or even the ancestor of chemistry, and is therefore of historical interest to the student of chemistry, in so far as it can be proved to contain recognizable descriptions of chemical substances, reactions, and technical procedures. How much may be gained in this respect from alchemical literature is shown by the comprehensive work of E. 0. von Lippmann, Entstehung und Ausbreitung der Alchemie (Berlin, 19 r 9). The peculiar character of this literature lies, however, in the fact that there exists a comparatively large number of treatises from which, apart from the most superficial allusions, absolutely nothing of a chemical nature can be extracted. It was therefore supposed-and many of the alchemists themselves wanted us to believe-that their mysterious sign-language was nothing but a skilful way of disguising the chemical procedures which lay behind it. The adept would see through the veil of hieroglyphics and recognize the secret chemical process. Unfortunately, alchemists of repute destroyed this legend by their admission that they were unable to read the riddle of the Sphinx, complaining that the old authors, like Geber and Raymundus Lullius, wrote too obscurely. And indeed, a careful study of such treatises, which perhaps form the majority, will reveal nothing of a chemical nature but something which is purely symbolic, i.e., psychological. .\lchernical language is not so much semeiotic as symbolic: it does not disguise a known content but suggests an unknown one, or rather, this unknown content suggests itself. This content can only be psychological. If one analyses these symbolic forms of speech, one comes to the conclusion that archetypal contents of the collective unconscious are being projected. Consequently, alchemy acquires a new and interesting aspect as a projected psychology of the collective unconscious, and thus ranks in importance with mythology and folklore. Its symbolism has the closest connections with dream symbolism on the one hand, and the symbolism of religion on the other. [K. A. Ziegler (bookseller): Alchemie II, List No. I7 (Bern, May 1946). Foreword published in both German and English (here slightly revised). Reprinted as a prefatory note to Ian MacPhail, comp., Alchemy and the Occult, A Catalogue of Books and Manuscripts from the Collection of Paul and Mary Mellon Given to Yale University Library (New Haven, 1g68).)

747

L-\CST Al\'D .--\LCHL\IY 1 1692

'693

1694

The drama of Faust has its primary sources in alchemy; these are on the one hand dreams, Yisions, and parables, on the other, personal and biographical notes regarding the Great Opus. One of the latest and most perfect examples of this sort is the Chymische H och::eit of Christian Rosencreutz (I 6 I 6), actually written by Johann Yalentin .--\ndreae (I s86-I 634)' a theologian of Wi.irttemberg who was also the author of Turbo \ 16 I 6), a comedy written in Latin.~ The hero of this play is a learned kno\';-it-all who, disillusioned with the sciences, finally returns to Christianity. The Chynzische Hoch:eit represents the opus Alchymicunz under the aspect of the hierosgamos of brother and sister \ Yenus gi\·es birth to a hermaphrodite). But these things are only hinted at in veiled terms. Because the royal children are still too infantile 1, identification with the parents, incest with the mother\, they are slain, purified, and put together again, by being subjected to e\·ery alchemical procedure. To be restituted, the bridal pair is taken oYer the sea, and a kind of .\egean festi\·al is celebrated with nymphs and sea-goddesses and a paean to love is sung. Rosencreutz is re\·ealed as the father of the young king or, respectively, the royal couple. .\lchemy had long known that the mystery of transformation applies not only to chemical materials but to man as well. The central figure is ~Iercurius, to whom I ha\·e devoted a special study. 3 He is a chthonic spirit, related to Wotan and the Devil. Faust is introduced like Job, but it is not he who suffers; it is others who suffer through him, and enn the Devil is not left unscathed. ~Iercurius enters in the shape of ~Iephistopheles (Devil and Satan I, as a dog to begin with, son of Chaos, and fire (ale h. filius canis. arises out of chaos, natura ignea). He becomes the ser1

[!Translated by H. X.'> Author's abstract of a lecture gi\·en to the Psychological Club. Zurich. on 8 Oct. 1949; published in the Club's Jah resbericht, 1949-50. A typescript ( 38 pp. \ of the entire lecture, made from a stenogram and e\·idently not corrected by Jung, is in the Jung archi\·es.] ~[See ''The Psychology of the Trans:erence'' (C.W., YO!. 16\, par. 407 and

n. 18.] 3

[''The Spirit ).fercurius" (C.\\'., \·ol. 13\, orig. 1942.]

748

F.-\l'ST .-\XD ALCHE::\IY

Yant of Famt (/amilaris. sen· us fugitinlS). ~Iephisto has two raYen~ \ cf. \\' otan I. He is the "northern phantom·· and has his "pleasureground .. in the "north-west. .. 1695 The axiom of ~I aria \3 I) perYades the whole work ( 4 main phases, 4 thieYes, 4 \-I ) grey women, 4 elements, Pluto ·s four-inhand team of horses, 3 I boys, I 2 3 4 = IO in the witches' tables, 3-4, j-8 Kabiri, "Three and one and one and three,.. etc ) . 1 6g6 ~Iephisto brings about the projection onto the anima with it.tragic end \child murder . There follm\·s the suppression of Eros by the power driYe . \\. alpurgisnacht = owrpowering lw the shadow). In the fire magic and the gold swindle there appears the Boy Charioteer. a ~Icrcurius ju<·enis, on the one hand hermaphrodite like his preform, the DcYil, a ky!lenios, and on the other an analogy to Christ and the Holy Spirit; at the same time he brings the wild host ( \\' otan ! I . 169i The underworld tripod embodies the feminine chthonic trinity , Diana. Luna, Hecate, and Phorkyads L It corresponds to the <·as hemzetirum \and the early Christian communion table of the catacombs with 3 loan:..;; and I fish· . The Tripus Aweus of alchemy is the one that Hephaestus ca'l into the sea. 1 698 Faust falls into a faint when he tries to possess Helen. This is the beginning of Phase II. and the second upsurge of Eros. Faust is again reju,·enated ~as in Pha.se I I as the Baccalaureus; the DeYil, howeYer, is ·'old ... The Homunculus corresponds to the Boy Charioteer. His father is Wagner Rosencreutz I ; his cousin is the Dnil. hence ~Iercurius in a younger shape. F au.;t is taken to the classic "world of fable.. \ collectiYe unconscious) for "healing... The "water" heal.; \aqua pemzanens, mare nostrum I. From it emerges the mountain (rebirth of the personality, alch. arising of the terra firma out of the sea). The .\egean Festi\'al is the hierosgamos of Homunculm and Galatea both are "stones brought to life") in the sea. Touching the tripod with the key and the hierosgamos prefigure the "chymical" marriage of Famt to Helen, the sister anima. Their child Euphorion is the third renewal form of

+ + +

~Iercurius.

I6gg

Phase III ends with the death of Euphorion. and once again the next and last phase begim with the power driYe. The de\ out Philemon and Baucis are murdered ..-\fter Faust's death the DeYil i;; cheated. The conflict goes on. Faust's place is taken by his "entelechy, .. the puer aeternus, 'vho ne,·er can realize his united double

i49

XIII. ALCHEMICAL STUDIES

nature because Faust is always the victim of whatever his shape may be at the time. He loses himself in smatterings of knowledge, in autoerotic Eros, in magic and deception, in the delusion of being a demigod (Helena) , and finally in the inflation of thinking himself the saviour of the whole world. He is always blind about himself, does not know what he is doing, and lacks both responsibility and humour. But the Devil knows who he himself is; he does not lie to himself, he has humour and the small kind of love (insects), all of which Faust lacks. The shadow cannot be redeemed unless consciousness acknowledges it as a part of its own self-that is, understands its compensatory significance. The "blessed boy" is therefore only a representation of a prenatal state that in no way throws light on what the experience of earthly life was really for. Dr. Marianus is the "son of the mother." A possible parallel might be an eighth-century alchemist, Morienes, Morienus, Marianus, 4 who was one of the most spiritual of all alchemists and understood the opus as a human transformation system. He says: "Temporum quidem longa mutatio hominem sub tempore constitutum confundit et mutat . . . ultimam autem mutationem mors dira subsequitur.'' 5 ' [In the alchemical literature, usually Morienus Romanus. See Psychology and Alchemy, C.W., vol. 12, par. 386 and n. 88, and par. 558.] 5 ["For the long lapse of time upsets man, who is under the law of time, and transforms him . . . after the final transformation, however, fearful death follows."-Morienus Romanus, "De transmutatione metallorum," Artis auriferae (Basel, 1610), II, p. 14.]

750

ALCHEMY AND PSYCHOLOGY' I

7oo

Throughout the history of alchemy we find-besides a considerable knowledge of substances (minerals and drugs) and a limited knowledge of the laws of chemical processes-indications of an accompanying "philosophy" which received the name "Hermetic" in the later Middle Ages. This natural philosophy appears first and particularly clearly in the Greek alchemists of the first to the sixth centuries A.D. ( Pseudo-Demokritus, Zosimos of Panopolis, and Olympiodorus). It was also especially evident in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when it reached its full development. This development owed a great deal to Paracelsus and his pupils (Gerard Darn and Heinrich Khunrath). In the interval between these two periods, philosophical speculation gave way to a more religious tendency (ideas were produced which ran parallel to the dogmatic concepts), hand in hand with a "mystical" tendency which gives alchemy its peculiar character. As the alchemists had no real knowledge of the nature and behaviour of chemical substances, they drew conscious parallels between the unknown processes and mythological motifs and thus "explained" the former ( cf. Dam Pernety, Dictionnaire mytho-hermetique, I 7 56) and they amplified these unknown processes by the projection of unconscious contents. This explains a peculiarity of the texts: on the one hand, the authors repeat what was said by their predecessors again and again and, on the other, they give a free rein to unlimited subjective fantasy in their symbolism. Comparative research has proved that the alchemical symbols are partly variations of mythological motifs, belonging to the conscious world of the alchemists, and partly spontaneous products of the unconscious. This becomes evident in the parallel character of the symbolism in modern dreams and that of alchemy. The alchemical symbols portray partly the substances or their unknown "mystical" nature and partly the process which 1

[Written in English for Encyclopedia Hebraica (Tel Aviv, I95'; Hebrew year 57 I I), where it was published in vol. I II, in a Hebrew translation. Nearly all the allusions are explained in Psychology and Alchemy, C.W., vol. I2. The English original is published here with minor stylistic changes.)

75 1

XIII . .-\LCHE::.!ICAL STL"DIES

I i02

leads to the goal of the work. It is the latter aspect that gives rise to the most highly pictorial development. The principal symbol of the substance that is transformed during the process is 111 ercurius. His portrait in the texts agrees in all essentials with the characteristics of the unconscious. .-\.t the beginning of the process, he is in the massa confusa, the chaos or nigredo (blackness). In this condition, the elements are fighting each other. Here ~lercurius plays the role of the prima materia, the transforming substance. He corresponds to the Nous or Anthropos, sunk in Physis, of Greek alchemy. In later days he i3 also called the "world soul in chains," a "system of the higher powers in the lower," etc. This depicts a dark ("unconscious") condition of the adept or of a psychic content. The procedures in the next phase have the purpose of illuminating the darkness by a union of the opposed elements. This leads to the albedo (whitening), which is compared to the sunrise or to the full moon. The white substance is also conceived as a pure body which has been refined by the fire but which still lacks a soul. It is considered to be feminine and is therefore called sponsa (bride), silver, or moon. Whereas the transformation of the darkness into light is symbolized by the theme of the fight with the dragon, it is the motif of the hierosgamos (sacred marriage of sister and brother or mother and son) which appears in this phase. The quaternity ( quaternio) of the elements here becomes a duality ( binarius). The reddening (rubedo) follows the whitening. By means of the coniunctio the moon is united with the sun, the silver w~th the gold, the female with the male. The development of the prima materia up to the rubedo (lapis

rubeus, carbunculus, tinctura rubra, sanguis spiritualis s. draconis, etc.) depicts the conscious realization ( illumina!io) of an uncon-

I i03

scious state of conflict which is henceforth kept in consciousness. During this process, the scum (terra damnata) which cannot be imprO\Âˇed must be thrown out. The white substance is compared to the corpus glorificationis, and another parallel is the ecclesia. The feminine character of the lapis a/bus corresponds to that of the unconscious, s~mbolized by the moon. The sun corresponds to the "light'" of consciousness. Becoming conscious of an unconscious content amounts to its integration in the conscious psyche and is therefore a coniunctio Solis et Lunae. This process of integration is one of the most important, helpful factors in modern psychotherapv, v.:hich is pre-

752

FAUST AND ALCHEMY

1704

eminently concerned with the psychology of the unconscious, for both the nature of consciousness and that of the unconscious are altered by it. As a rule the process is accompanied by the phenomenon of the transference, that is, the projection of unconscious contents on to the doctor. We also meet this phenomenon in alchemy, where a woman adept often plays the role of the soror mystica (Zosimos and Theosebeia, Nicolas Flamel and Peronelle, John Pordage and Jane Leade, and in the nineteenth century Mr. South and his daughter, Mrs. Atwood). The coniunctio produces the lapis philosophorum, the central symbol of alchemy. This lapis has innumerable synonyms. On the one hand, its symbols are quaternary or circular figures and, on the other, the rebis or the hermaphroditic Anthropos who is compared to Christ. He has a trichotomus form ( habat corpus, animam et spiritum) and is also compared to the Trinity ( trinus et unus). The symbolism of the lapis corresponds to the mandala (circle) symbols in dreams, etc., which represent wholeness and order and therefore express the personality that has been altered by the integration of the unconscious. The alchemical opus portrays the process of individuation but in a projected form because the alchemists were unconscious of this psychic process. 2 2 [J ung appended the following bibliography:] Berthelot, Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs ( 1887) ; Artis auriferae, II ( 1593) ; Theatrum chemicum ( 1602-6!), VI; Mange!, Bibliotheca chemica curiosa (I 702), II; Herbert Silberer, Problems of Mysticism and Its Symbolism (New York, 19 I7); R. Wilhelm and Jung, The Secret of the Golden Flower ( 1931); Jung, Paracelsica ( 1942), Psychologie und Alchemie ( 1944), Die Psychologie der U ebertragung ( 1946), Symbolik des Geistes ( 1948).

753

XIV THE SPIRIT IN MAN, ART, AND LITERATURE (related to Volume 15 of the Collected Works)

:\IL\IORL\L TO

S.'

Death has laid its hand upon our friend. The darkness out of which his soul had risen has come again and has undone the life of his earthly body, and has left us alone in pain and sorrow. I ;o6 To many death seems to be a brutal and meaningless end to a short and meaningless existence. So it looks, if seen from the surface and from the darkne~s. But when we penetrate the depths of the soul and when we try to understand its mysterious life, we shall discern that death is not a meaningless end, the mere vanishing into nothingless-it is an accomplishment, a ripe fruit on the tree of life. 1'\or is death an abrupt extinction, but a goal that has been unconsciously liYCd and worked for during half a lifetime. I i07 In the youthful expansion of our life we think of it as an everincreasing ri,·er, and this com·iction accompanies us often far beyond the noonday of our existence. But if we listen to the quieter voices of our deeper nature we become aware of the fact that soon after the middle of our life the soil begins its secret work, getting ready for the departure. Our of the turmoil and terror of our life th~ one precious flower of the spirit begins to unfold, the fourpetaled flower of the immortal light, and e\"Cn if our mortal consciousness should not he aware of its secret operation, it nevertheless does its secret work of purification. I ;oS "'hen I met J. S. for the first time I found in him a man of rare clarity and purity of character and personality. I was deeply impressed with the honesty and sincerity of his purpose . .-\nd \vhen I worked with him, helping him to understand the intricacies of the human psyche, I could not but admire the kindness of his feeling and the absolute truthfulness of his mind. But though it was a pri,·ilege to teach a man of such rare human qualities, it was not the thing that touched me most. Yes, I did teach him, but he taught me too. He spoke to me in the eternal language of symbol~, which I did not grasp until the awe-inspiring conclusion, the culmination

705

[Published in Spring, I 955 (Analytical Psychology Club of New York). with the note: "These words, spoken in I 92 7. are printed here with .. permission of Dr. Jung.'' E,·idently written in English. Club records indicate that J. S. was Jerome Schloss. of New York. but no other details ha,·e been a\·ailable.]

757

XIY. THE SPIRIT D\ :!>lA:!', ART, A"\D .. LITERATCRE

1 ~og

~ 10

in death. became manifest. I shall never forget how he liberated his mind from the turmoil of modem business life, and how, gradually working back. he freed himself from the bonds that held him fast to his earthly parents and to his youth; and how the eternal image of the soul appeared to him, first dimly, then slowly taking shape in the vision of his dreams, and how finally, three weeks before his death. he beheld the \ision of his own sarcophagus from which his li\i.ng soul arose. Who am I that I should dare say one word beyond this vision? Is there a human word that could stand again._<;t the revelation given to the chosen one? There is none. Let us return, therefore, to the e..xternal language and let us hear the words of the sacred text. A.nd as the ancient words will gi\Âˇe truth to us, we will give life to them. ;~I Corinthians I 3; Ij:3i-jj.)

FOREWORD TO SCHMID-GUISAN: "TAG UND NACHT" 1 I 7I I

The atmosphere of this book is only too familiar to me. On reading the manuscript, I found it difficult at first to extricate myself from the toils of day-to-day psychotherapeutic practice-until I succeeded in viewing the book against its historical background. It is indeed something of a literary orphan, seeming to have no affinities with the present. Its strange form-the adventures of an allegorical hero-reminds one of the eighteenth century. But this is no more than a reminder, for the book is quite alien to the eighteenth century in its feeling. The problem of feeling is altogether modern, and the book opens up a world of experience that seems to have been locked away since the time of Rene d'Anjou-the whole sensuous world of Eros, which the latest Papal Encyclical on Christian marriage 2 and the penalistic conscience of modern man have conspired to suppress in a quite terrifying manner. Actually it is an esoteric book, a petal fallen from the unfading mystic rose which the troubadours accused the Church of hiding under a veil of secrecy. As though any Church had ever known the secret, or knowing it could have tolerated it! This book is neither for nor of the masses. For the multitude, it had better not been written, or should be read only because of its bad reputation. They will be lucky if they emerge unscathed. Nearly five hundred years ago a similar book was written, again at a cultural turning-point, and again a petal from that mystic rose-a knightly adventure and a stumbling-block to the vulgar, the Hypnerotomachia 3 of that celebrated Poliphilo, who for a moment twitched the veil from the psychic background of the Cinquecento. From the preface to that book I would like to set down a classical passage which shows how the Knights of the Rose join hands across the centuries: 1

[Zurich and Munich, I93I. For Hans Schmid-Guisan (I88I-I932), see Jung's letter of 6 Nov. I 915, in Letters, ed. G. Adler, vol. 1.) '[Casti Connubii of Pius XI, 3I Dec. 1930.] 3 [By Francesco Colonna, 1499. Cf. infra, pars. 1751ff., "Foreword to FierzDavid: The Dream of Poliphilo."]

759

XIV. THE SPIRIT IX 1\IA::-l", ART, AXD LITERATt:RE

From this it is e\·ident that all wise men ha\·e practised their sciences beneath the shadow of the fairest, innermost secrets of Love. LO\·e was, and is still, the graceful brush which traces out all that is strange and appointed by Fate, as much among the higher as the lo\,·er powers, and all that is subject to them . . . . Know, see and hear. and you will wisely remark that the most splendid. sublime, and precious mysteries are hidden beneath the beauties of Lo\·e. from which they issue anew, for Love is the joyful soul of everything that li\·es . . . . Should I discover that some profane person had put forth his odious hand to this book to finger it, or that some unworthy creature should make bold to turn its pages, or that some shameless dissembler, under the cloak of piety, should deriYe a Yulgar pleasure from it, or that some eYil-minded spectator of these so\·ereign gifts should seek, from boredom, the profit that by right belongs only to 10\·ing hearts, I would break the pen \\·hich has described so many configurations of the great secret. and. utterly forgetful of myself, would expunge all memory of the satisfaction I ha\·e found in the narration, delicately wiled in the semblance of pretty fictions, of things most wonderful and rare, which sen·e but to eleYate a man to all that is Yirtuous, and denying myself the wry life of my life, I would abstain from the eager pursuit of those \·oluptuous charms which draw men tO\\·ards the sacred delights. 4 IiI 2

Since witless literal-mindedness has not died out in four hundred years, I would like to impress upon the reader the classical warning which the unconscious gave Poliphilo on his journey into the darkness: "\\'hoever thou mayest be, take of this treasure as much as thou willst. Yet I warn thee, take from the head and touch not the bodY. '"o

Hans Schmid-Guisan: In J! emoriam 6 IiI 3

Life is in truth a battle, in which friends and faithful companions-in-arms sink away. struck by the wayward bullet. Sorrowfully I see the pa..<;sing of a comrade, who for more than twenty 1 [This is from the "Receuil steganographique," the introduction to Beroalde de \'en·ille's French translation of I 6oo, and is not represented in the abo\·ecited English nrsion. The trans. here. by A.S.B. GJo,·er, is from the French.] .·. "'Quisquis es quantumque libuerit, huius thesauri sume: at moneo, aufer caput, corpus ne tangiot." [Cf. The Dream of Poliphilo, p. 39-] ti [Basler .\'achrichten, 25 Apr. I932.]

760

SCHMID-GUISAN:

1714

1715

"TAG UND NACHT"

years shared with me the experiment of life and the adventure of the modern spirit. I first met Hans Schmid-Guisan at a conference of psychiatrists in Lausanne, sa where I discussed for the first time the impersonal, collective nature of psychic symbols. He was then assistant physician at the Mahaim Clinic in Cery. Not long afterwards he came to Zurich, in order to study analytical psychology with me. This collaborative effort gradually broadened into a friendly relationship, and the problems of psychological practice frequently brought us together in serious work or round a convivial table. At that time we were especially interested in the question of the relativity of psychological judgments, or, in other words, the influence of temperament on the formation of psychological concepts. As it turned out, he developed instinctively an attitude type which was the direct opposite of my own. This difference led to a long and lively correspondence, 7 thanks to which I was able to clear up a number of fundamental questions. The results are set forth in my book on types. I remember a highly enjoyable bicycle tour which took us to Ravenna, where we rode along the sand through the waves of the sea. This tour was a continual discussion which lasted from coffee in the morning, all through the dust of the Lombardy roads, to the round-bellied bottle of Chianti in the evening, and continued even in our dreams. He stood the test of this journey: he was a good companion and always remained so. He battled valiantly with the hydra of psychotherapy and did his best to inculcate into his patients the same humanity for which he strove as an ideal. He never actually made a name for himself in the scientific world, but shortly before his death he had the pleasure of finding a publisher for his book Tag und l'v'acht,' in which he set down many of his experiences in a form peculiarly his own. Faithful to his convictions, he wrote it as he felt he had to write it, pandering to nobody's prejudices. His humanity and his sensitive psychological understanding were not gifts that dropped down from heaven, but the fruit of unending work on his own soul. Not only relatives and friends stand mourning today by his bier, but countless people for whom he opened the treasure-house of the psyche. They know what this means to them in a time of spiritual drought. [Cf. The Freud/fung Letters, 259], of 12 June 1911.] [See Psychological Types, C.W., vol. 6, p. xii.] s [Cf. supra.]

Ba 7

761

ON THE TALE OF THE OTTER 1 In writing a few introductory words to this publication, one of his last, I am discharging a duty to my dead friend, Oskar A. H. Schmitz. I am not a literary man, nor am I competent to pass judgment on aesthetic questions. Moreover, the literary value of "The Tale of the Otter" is of little concern to me. I readily admit that, as a fairytale, it is as good or as bad as any other that a writer has invented. Such tales, as we know, even though invented by a great writer, do not breathe the flowery, woodland magic of the popular fairytale. Usually they can be shown to be products of the author's personal psychology, and they have a problematical air that makes them slightly unnatural. This is true also of "The Tale of the Otter." It is only a literary form for a content that could have been expressed in quite other words and in quite another way. Nevertheless, it was not chosen fortuitously. The content clothed itself in fairytale form not with the secret pretence of being an allegory, but because in this guise it could find the simplest and most direct access to the reader's heart. Childlike simplicity of heart was a basic trait of Schmitz's nature, known to very few people, and one which he himself recognized only late in life. Thanks to this simplicity, he could speak to the hearts of those he wished to touch. I7I 7 I happen to know how the tale came to be written. It was not born of any conscious intention to reach a particular kind of public; it was never even thought out, but flowed unconsciously from his pen. Schmitz had learnt how to switch off his critical intellect for certain purposes and to place his literary powers at the disposal of the heart's wisdom. In this way he was able to say things that are infinitely far removed from the usual style of his writings. At times, it became a real necessity for him to express himself in this way. For many things which reason wrestles with 1716

["Vorwort zum Marchen vom Fischotter," i.e., foreword to one tale in Oscar A. H. Schmitz, Miirchen aus dem Unbewussten (Munich, 1932), with drawings by Alfred Kubin. For Schmitz ( 1873-1931), see Jung's letter of 26 May 1923 in Letters, ed. G. Adler, vol. 1.)

762

ON THE TALE OF THE OTTER

1718

1719

1720

1721

in vain flow easily and effortlessly into a pen emptied of all critical intentions. The result may seem very simple, indeed naive, and anyone who read it as one reads a popular fairytale would be disappointed. It is equally idle to take it as an allegory. Schmitz himself did not really know what his tale meant. He told me so himself, for we often talked about it. The utterances of the heart-unlike those of the discriminating intellect-always relate to the whole. The heartstrings sing like an Aeolian harp only under the gentle breath of a mood, an intuition, which does not drown the song but listens. What the heart hears are the great, all-embracing things of life, the experiences which we do not arrange ourselves but which happen to us. All the pyrotechnics of reason and literary skill pale beside this, and language returns to the naive and childlike. Simplicity of style is justified only by significance of content, and the content acquires its significance only from the revelation of experience. The decisive experience of Schmitz's life was his discovery of the reality of the psyche and the overcoming of rationalistic psychologism. He discovered that the psyche is something that really exists. This changed his life and his work outlook. For those who are vouchsafed such a discovery, the psyche appears as something objective, a psychic non-ego. This experience is very like the discovery of a new world. The supposed vacuum of a merely subjective psychic space becomes filled with objective figures, having wills of their own, and is seen to be a cosmos that conforms to law, and among these figures the ego takes its place in transfigured form. This tremendous experience means a shattering of foundations, an overturning of our arrogant world of consciousness, a cosmic shift of perspective, the true nature of which can never be grasped rationally or understood in its full implications. An experience of this kind induces an almost frightening need to communicate with sympathetic fellow-beings, to whom one then turns with naive words. "The Tale of the Otter" describes an experience of the unconscious and the resultant transformation both of the personality and of the figures in the psyche. The King stands for the ruling principle of consciousness, which strays further and further away from the unconscious. (The fish disappear from the waters of the kingdom.) The stagnation of consciousness finally compels the King to make contact with the unconscious again. (The

763

XIV. THE SPIRIT l:'l" MAN, ART, AND LITERATURE

1 i22

King's pilgrimage.) The otter, the unconscious partner of the ego, seeks to bring about a reconciliation with consciousness. ( Gilgamesh-Eabani motif.) This is successful, and a new world of consciousness arises on an apparently firm foundation. But as the King represents only the best part of the personality, and not the inferior part, the shadow, which should also be included in the transformation, the old King dies and his good-for-nothing nephew succeeds to the throne. The second half of the tale is concerned with the far more difficult task of including the weaknesses of the personality and its useless, adolescent traits in the process of transformation. This is especially difficult because the shadow is burdened with a still more inferior, feminine component, a negative anima figure ( Brolante, the harlot). While the masculine components are successfully brought into harmony with the vital instincts (represented by animals), there is a final separation between the spiritual and the physical nature of the anima. The masculine half is rescued from evil, but the feminine half becomes its victim. "The Tale of the Otter" gives touching and modest expression to an all-embracing and all-transforming initiation. Read it with care and meditate upon it! For when all this has been fulfilled in him, Schmitz died. In this little fairytale he tells posterity how it fared with him and what transformations his soul had to undergo before it was ready to lay aside its garment and end its lifelong experiment.

IS THERE A FREUDIAN TYPE OF POETRY? 1 Poetry, like every product of the human mind, is naturally dependent on a man's general psychological attitude. If a writer is sick, psychically sick, it is highly probable that whatever he produces will bear the stamp of his sickness. This is true with reservations, of course; for there actually are cases where the creative genius so far transcends the sickness of the creator that only a few traces of human imperfection are to be seen in the work. But these are exceptions; the general rule is that a neurotic poet will make neurotic poems. The more neurotic a poem is, the less it is a creative work of art and the more it is a symptom. It is therefore very easy to point out infantile symptoms in such cases and to view the product in the light of a particular theory; indeed, it is sometimes possible to explain a work of art in the same way as one can explain a nervous illness in terms of Freud's theory or Adler's. But when it comes to great poetry the pathological explanation, the attempt to apply Freudian or Adlerian theory, is in effect a ridiculous belittlement of the work of art. The explanation not only contributes nothing to an understanding of the poetry, but, on the contrary, deflects our gaze from that deeper vision which the poet offers. The Freudian and the Adlerian theory alike formulate nothing but the human-all-too-human aspects of the commonplace neurosis. So when one applies this point of view to great poetry, one is dragging it down to the level of dull ordinariness, when actually it towers above it like a high mountain. It is quite obvious that all human beings have father and mother complexes, and it therefore means nothing if we discern traces of a father or mother complex in a great work of art; just as little as would the discovery that Goethe had a liver and two kidneys like any other mortal. 1 72 4 If the meaning of a poetic work can be exhausted through the application of a theory of neurosis, then it was nothing but a patho-

1723

[Written originally in German, in answer to the question "Existe-t'il une poesie de signe freudien ?" and published in a French trans. in the Journal des poetes (Brussels), III: 5 ( 1 1 Dec. 1932), under the heading "La Psychanalyse devant Ia poesie," with answers also from R. Allendy and Louis Charles Baudouin.J

XIV. THE SPIRIT IN MAN, ART, AND LITERATURE

logical product in the first place, to which I would never concede the dignity of a work of art. Today, it is true, our taste has become so uncertain that often we no longer know whether a thing is art or a disease. I am convinced, however, that if a work of art can be explained in exactly the same way as the clinical history of a neurosis, either it is not a work of art, or the explainer has completely misunderstood its meaning. I am quite convinced that a great deal of modern art, painting as well as poetry, is simply neurotic and that it can, consequently, be reduced like an hysterical symptom to the basic, elementary facts of neurotic psychology. But so far as this is possible, it ceases to be art, because great art is man's creation of something superhuman in defiance of all the ordinary, miserable conditions of his birth and childhood. To apply to this the psychology of neurosis is little short of grotesque.

FOREWORD TO GILBERT: "THE CURSE OF INTELLECT" 1 The author has kindly given me a chance of reading his book in manuscript. I must say, I have read it with the greatest interest and pleasure. It is most refreshing, after the whole nineteenth century and a stretch of the twentieth, to see the intellect once more turned loose upon herself, not exactly in the dispassionate form of a "Critique of Pure Reason," but in the rather impassioned way of a most temperamental onslaught on herself. As a matter of fact, it is a wholesome and vitalizing tearing into sorry shreds of what all "healthy-minded" people believed in as their most cherished securities. I am human enough to enjoy a juicy piece of injustice when it comes in the right moment and in the right place. Sure enough, Intellect has done her worst in our "Western Civilization," and she is still at it with undoubted force. Kant could still afford to deal with the contemporaneous intellect in a polite, careful, and gentle way, because she then was but a mere fledgling. But our time is concerned with a monster completely grown up and so fat that it can easily begin to devour itself. I726 At the funeral somebody will be allowed to say only something nice about the deceased. In anticipation of that future event I will say it now: The chief trouble seems to be that the intellect escaped the control of man and became his obsession, instead of remaining the obedient tool in the hands of a creator, shaping his world, adorning it with the colourful images of his mind.

725

] anuary r 934 [Written in English. The book was never published. For J. Allen Gilbert, M.D. (I 867-I 948), American psychotherapist, see Jung's letters of I 9 June I 927 and 8 Jan. I 934 (relevant to this MS) in Letters, ed. G. Adler, vol. !.] 1

FOREWORD TO JUNG: "WIRKLICHKEIT DER SEELE" ( 1934) 1 1727

1 72 8

1729

This, the fourth volume of my "Psychologische Abhandlungen," contains a number of essays that faithfully reflect the manifold facets of the more recent psychology. It is not long since the psychology of the personality broke free from the all too narrow confines of the consulting room on the one hand, and of materialistic and rationalistic assumptions on the other. It is therefore no wonder if much still clings to it that is in need of clarification. Until recently the worst chaos prevailed in the realm of theory, and only now have serious attempts been made to clear away the confusion. Dr. Kranefeldt's contributions~ are devoted to this task. Dr. Rosenthal's contribution 3 is an application of the typological viewpoint to the scientific study of religion. The archetypical figures of anima and animus form a special department of depth psychology. Emma Jung discusses the phenomenology of the animus complex.~ My own contributions are concerned on the one hand with the philosophical problems of modern psychology, and on the other hand with its applications. Since this time, too, my essays came into being as answers to questions addressed to me by the public," their unusual diversity may be taken as an indication that recent psychological insights have left their mark on as many diverse realms of the mind. Not only doctors and teachers, but writers and educated laymen, and-last but not least-even publishers are now evincing an interest in things psychological. These many facets of complex psychology, lighting up the most 1 [

("Reality of the Soul"; subtitled "Applications and Advances of the New Psychology.") Besides the four contributions of other writers, there are nine essays by Jung, which were assigned to several vols. of the C.W.] 2 [W. M. Kranefeldt, "Der Gegensatz von Sinn und Rhythmus im seelischen Geschehen," and "'Ewige Analyse'. Bemerkung zur Traumdeutung und zum U n bewussten. "] 3 [Hugo Rosenthal, "Der Typengegensatz in der jiidischen Religionsgeschichte."] 4 [Emma Jung, "Ein Beitrag zum Problem des Animus." Trans. by Cary F. Baynes, "On the Nature of the Animus," in Animus and Anima (Analytical Psychology Club of New York, 1957).] 5 [Cf. "Foreword to Seelenprobleme der Gegenwart," supra, par. 1292.]

768

JUNG:

"WIRKLICHKEIT DER SEELE"

varied walks of life and domains of the mind, are in turn a much simplified reflection of the measureless diversity and iridescence of the psyche itself. Although one could never dream of exhausting its mysteries and fathoming all its secrets, it nevertheless seems to me one of the foremost tasks of the human mind to labour without cease for an ever deeper knowledge of man's psychic nature. For the greatest enigma in the world, and the one that is closest to us, is man himself. September 1933

FORE\\.ORD TO MEHLICH: "J. H. FICHTES SEELEKLEHRE UND IHRE BEZIEHUNG ZUR GEGENWART" 1 I

730

731

Although I owe not a little to philosophy, and have benefited by the rigorous discipline of its methods of thought, I nevertheless feel in its presence that holy dread which is inborn in every observer of facts. The unending profusion of concepts spawning yet other concepts, rolling along like a great flood in the history of philosophy, is only too likely to inundate the little experimental gardens of the empiricist, so carefully marked out, swamping his well-ploughed fields, and swallowing up the still unexplored virgin land. Confronting the flux of ewnts with unprejudiced gaze, he must fashion for himself an intellectual tool stripped of all preconceptions, and anxiously eschew as perilous temptations all those modes of thinking which philosophy offers him in such excessive abundance. Because I am an empiricist first and foremost, and my views are grounded in experience, I had to deny myself the pleasure of reducing them to a well-ordered system and of placing them in their historical and ideological context. From the philosophical standpoint, of whose requirements I am very well aware, this is indeed a painful omission. Even more painful to me, however, is the fact that the empiricist must also forswear an intellectual clarification of his concepts such as is absolutely imperative for the philosopher. His thinking has to mould itself to the facts, and the facts ha\Âˇe as a rule a distressingly irrational character which proves refractory to any kind of philosophical systematization. Thus it comes about that empirical concepts are concerned for the most part with the chaos of chance events, because it is their function to produce a prmÂˇisional order amid the disorder of the phenomenal world. A.nd because they are wholly bent on this urgent task, they neglect-sometimes only too readily-their own philosophical development and inner clarification, for a thinker who performs the first task satisfactorily will seldom be able to complete the second. 1

(Zurich and Leipzig. I 935- ( "Fichte's Psychology and Its Relation to the Present''\ The author, Dr. Rose Mehlich, closed her book with a chapter on Fichte and Jung.]

MEHLICH:

173 2

1 733

"J.

H. FICHTES SEELENLEHRE"

These two aspects became overwhelmingly clear to me as I read this admirable study of Fichte's psychology: on the one hand the apparent carelessness and vagueness of my own concepts when it comes to systematic formulation, and on the other the precision and clarity of a philosophical system which is singularly unencumbered by empirical impedimenta. The strange but undeniable analogy between two points of view derived from totally different sources certainly gives one food for thought. I am not aware of having plagiarized Fichte, whom I have not read. Naturally I am familiar with Leibniz, C. G. Carus, and von Hartmann, but I never knew till now that my psychology is "Romantic." Unlike Rickert~ and many other philosophers and psychologists, I hold that, in spite of all abstraction, objectivity, absence of bias, and empiricism, everyone thinks as he thinks and sees as he sees. Accordingly, if there is a type of mind, or a disposition, that thinks and interprets "romantically," analogous conclusions will emerge no matter whether they are coloured by the subject or by the object. It would be vain to imagine-gamely competing with Baron Miinchhausen-that one could disembarrass oneself of one's own weight and thus get rid of the ultimate and most fundamental of all premises-one's own disposition. Only an isolated and hypertrophied psychic function is capable of cherishing such an illusion. But a function is only a part of the human whole, and its limited character is beyond all doubt. Were it not for these considerations the analogy between Fichte and me would certainly have to be regarded as a minor miracle. It is a bold undertaking-for which the author deserves all the more credit-to bring Fichte into line with a modern empirical psychology based on facts that were wholly inaccessible to this philosopher-an empiricism, morever, which has unearthed conceptual material that is singularly unsuited to philosophical evaluation. But it seems that this undertaking has been successful, for I learn to my amazement that the Romantic Movement has not been relegated to the age of fossils, but still has living representatives. This is probably no accident, for it appears that besides the self-evident experience of the "objective" world there is an experience of the psyche, without which an experience of the world would not be possible at all. It seems to me that the secret of Romanticism is that it confronted the all-too-obvious object of experience with a 2 [Heinrich Rickert ( 1863-1936), German philosopher, taught that an individual's bias influences what he learns.)

XIV. THE SPIRIT IN MAN, ART, AND LITERATURE

subject of experience, which it proceeded to objectify thanks to the infinite refractive powers of consciousness. There is a psychology that always has another person or thing for an object-a fairly well-differentiated kind of behaviourism which might be described as ''classical." But besides this there is a psychology which is a knowing of the knower and an experiencing of the experiment. I 734 The indirect influence of the type of mind exemplified by Hume, Berkeley, and Kant can hardly be overestimated. Kant in particular erected a barrier across the mental world which made it impossible for even the boldest flight of speculation to penetrate into the object. Romanticism was the logical counter-movement, expressed most forcefully, and most cunningly disguised, in Hegel, that great psychologist in philosopher's garb. Nowadays it is not Kant but natural science and its de-subjectivized world that have erected the barrier against which the speculative tendency rebounds. Its essentially behaviourist statements about the object end in meaninglessness and nonsense. That is why we seek the meaning in the statements of the subject, believing we are not in error if we assume that the subject will first of all make statements about itself. Is it the empiricist in me, or is it because analogy is not identity, that makes me regard the "Romantic" standpoint simply as a point of departure and its statements as "comparative material"? I 735 I admit that this attitude is disappointingly sober, but the psychic affinity with a romantic philosopher prompts me to a critical utterance which seems to me the more in place as there are only too many people for whom "Romantic" always means something out of a romance. I 736 Apart from this critical proviso, which the author herself stresses, her book is a welcome contribution of the study of a specific attitude of mind which has recurred many times in the course of history and presumably will also recur in the future.

FOREWORD TO \'ON KOENIG-FACHSET\'FELD: "WANDLUNGEN DES TRAUMPROBLL\IS VON DER ROMANTIK BIS ZUR GEGE.KWART" 1 1737

The author has asked me to write a foreword to her dissertation. I am happy to comply with her request becau~e this comprehensive and well-documented work deserves to be known to a wider scientific public. Although we already possess a number of valuable "synoptic" studies which give a fairly complete account of the various doctrines prevalent in modern psychology-! would mention in particular the works of W. Kranefeldt, G. R. Heyer, and Gerhard Adler-there was always a noticeable gap as regards the historical and philosophical side of ccmplex psychology. The more conscious it became of the magnitude of its task-the study of the human psyche in its totality-the more contacts it made with other fields of thought where the psyche has an equal right to ~peak, above all with philosophy. For whenever a science begins to grow beyond its narrow specialist boundaries, the need for fundamental principles is forced upon it, and with this it moves into the sovereign sphere of philosophy. If the science happens to be psychology, a confrontation with philosophy is unavoidable for the very reason that it had been a philosophic discipline from the beginning, resolutely breaking away from philosophy only in quite recent times, when it established itself within the philosophical and the medical faculties as an independent empirical science with mechanistic techniques. The experimental psychology inaugurated by W. Wundt was succeeded by the psychology of the neurmes, which had been developed almost simultaneously by Freud in Vienna and by Pierre Janet in Paris. My own course of development wa5 influenced primarily by the French school and later by Wundt's psychology. Later, in I go6, I made contact with Freud, only to part company with him in I 9 I 3, after seven years of collaboration, owing to differences of scientific opinion. It was chiefly considerations of principle that brought [Stuttgart, I 935Âˇ ("Transformations of Dream Problems from Romanticism to the Present.") For Dr. Olga von Koenig-Fachsenfeld, see Jung's letter of 5 May 194 I in Letters, ed. G. Adler, vol. 1.] t

773

XIV. THE SPIRIT IN MAN, ART, AND LITERATURE

1738

1739

about the separation, above all the recognition that psychopathology can neyer be based exclusively on the psychology of psychic disease, which would restrict it to the pathological, but must include normal psychology and the full range of the psyche. Modern medicine quite rightly adheres to the principle that pathology must be based on a thorough knowledge of normal anatomy and physiology. The criterion by which we judge disease does not and cannot lie in the disease itself, as most of the medieval physicians thought, but only in the normal functioning of the body. Disease is a variation of the normal. The same considerations apply to therapy. For a long time it seemed as though experimental and medical psychologists could get along with purely scientific methods. But the Yiew gradually gained ground that a critique of certain ideals originating in the humanistic disciplines was not out of place, since a careful imÂˇestigation of the aetiology of pathological states had shown how the general attitude of the patient which led to the morbid variation depended on just these ideal or moral premises, not to mention the interpretation of facts and the theories resulting therefrom. But as soon as medical psychology reached this point, it turned out that the principles which had hitherto held unlimited sway over men's minds were of a purely rationalistc or materialistic nature, and, in spite of their "scientific" pretensions, had to be subjected to philosophical criticism because the object of their judgment was the psyche itself. The psyche is an extremely complex factor, so fundamental to all premises that no judgment can be regarded as "purely empirical" but must first indicate the premises by which it judges. Modern psychology can no longer disguise the fact that the object of its investigation is its own essence, so that in certain respects there can be no "principles" or valid judgments at all, but only phenomenology-in other words, sheer experience. On this level of knowledge, psychology has to abdicate as a science, though only on this very high level. Below that, judgments and hence science are still possible, provided that the premises are always stated, and to that extent the prospects for psychology as a science are by no means hopeless. But once it ceases to be conscious of the factors conditioning its judgments, or if it has never attained to this consciousness, it is like a dog chasing his own tail. So far, then, as psychology takes its own premises into account, its relnÂˇance to philosophy and the history of ideas is self-evident, and this is where the present book comes in. No one can deny that certain of these premises are a restatement of ideas dating

774

VON KOENIG-FACHSENFELD:

"WANDLUNGEN DES TRAUMPROBLEMS"

back to the time of the Romantics. However, it is not so much the ideal premises that justify the author's historical approach as the supposedly "modern" phenomenological standpoint of "sheer experience," which was not only anticipated by the Romantics but actually pertains to their very nature. It was the essence of Romanticism to "experience" the psyche rather than to "investigate" it. This was once again an age of philosopher-physicians, a phenomenon that was observed for the first time in the post-Paracelsan era, more especially in philosophical alchemy, whose most important practitioners were usually doctors. In keeping with the pre-scientific spirit of the times, the Romantic psychology of the early nineteenth century was a child of Romantic natural philosophy-one thinks of C. G. Carus-although the beginnings of empiricism were already discernible in Justinus Kerner. The psychology of the sixteenth century, on the other hand, still had occult and religious undercurrents, and though it called itself "philosophy" a later, "enlightened" age would hardly have countenanced the name. The psyche as experience is the hallmark of the Romantics who sought the blue flower, 2 as well as of the philosophical alchemists who sought the lapis noster. 1 74Â° This book performs the valuable service of unlocking a veritable treasure-house of contemplative Romantic poetry for modern psychology. The parallelism with my psychological conceptions is sufficient justification for calling them "Romantic." A similar inquiry into their philosophical antecedents would also justify such an epithet, for every psychology that takes the psyche as "experience" is from the historical point of view both "Romantic" and "alchemystical." Below this experimental level, however, my psychology is scientific and rationalistic, a fact I would beg the reader not to overlook. The premise underlying my judgments is the reality of everything psychic, a concept based on the appreciation of the fact that the psyche can also be pure experience. 174r The author has carried out her task with great professional expertise, and I warmly recommend her book to everyone who is interested in the problems of modern complex psychology. 2

[A symbol of the poet's search, in German romantic poetry. Cf. Psychology and Alchemy, C.W., vol. 12, pars. ggff.)

775

FOREWORD TO GILLI: "DER DUNKLE BRUDER" 1 I

742

743

744

By writing a foreword to Gertrud Gilli's drama in verse, I do not wish to evoke the impression that it needs a psychological explanation in order to heighten its effect. Works of art are their own interpretation. The Dark Brother does not share the modern obscurantism of certain contemporary paintings, nor is it a direct product of unconscious activity which would require interpretation and transcription into generally intelligible language. The play is modern, however, in so far as the central process of Christianity, the divine drama, is reflected in the sphere of human motivations. A bold stroke indeed! But has not the personality of Judas always been a problematical figure in the redemption mystery? For certain Protestant theologians and historians, Christ himself has been stripped of his divine incarnation and become simply a founder of religion, a very superior and exemplary one, it is true, and his pac;;sion mere human suffering for the sake of an ideal, thus lending considerably more plausibility to the human protagonists and antagonists. Only in the mythological phase of the mind are heroes representatives of light and purity, and their adversaries embodiments of absolute evil. The real man is a mixture of good and bad, of self-determination and supine dependence, and the borderline between genuine ideals and personal striving for power is often very difficult to draw. As for the genius, his role as the mouthpiece and proclaimer of new truths is not always felt as an unmixed blessing by ordinary mortals, especially where religious beliefs are concerned. In one form or another, the figure of the redeemer is universal because it partakes of our common humanity. It invariably emerges from the unconscious of the individual or the people when an intolerable situation cries out for a solution that cannot be implemented by conscious means alone. Thus the Messianic expectations of the Jews were bound to rise to fever pitch when, as a result of the 1

[Zurich, I 938. ("The Dark Brother.") Gertrud Gilli was a graphologist. Cf. her article, "C. G. J ung in seiner Handschrift," in Die kulturelle Bedeutung der komplexen Psychologie (I 935) .]

776

GILL!;

"DER DUNKLE BRUDER"

corruption that followed in the wake of Herod the Great, all hope of an independent sacerdotal order or kingdom had vanished, and the country had become a Roman province lacking any form of autonomy. It is therefore readily understandable that these Messianic expectations centred on a political redeemer, and that more than one enthusiastic patriot sought to fulfil this role-above all Judas of Galilee, whose insurrection is reported by Flavius Josephus, 2 and who, boldly but quite logically, entangles the eponymous hero of this drama in a similar task. 1 745 But underlying the divine drama there is a different plan, which is not concerned with man's outward, social, or political liberation. It focuses rather on the inner man and his psychic transformation. What is the use of changing the external conditions if man's inner attitude remains the same? It is all the same, psychologically, whether his subjection is the result of external circumstances or of intellectual or moral systems. True "redemption" comes about only when he is led back to that deepest and innermost source of life which is generally called God. Jesus was the channel for a new and direct experience of God, and how little this depends on external conditions is amply demonstrated by the history of Christianity. 1 746 Man lives in a state of continual conflict between the truth of the external world in which he has been placed and the inner truth of the psyche that connects him with the source of life. He is pulled now to one side and now to the other until he has learnt to see that he has obligations to both. In this sense Gertrud Gilli's play gives expression to a universal and timeless human fact: beyond our personal and time-bound consciousness, in our interior selves, there is enacted the e\Âˇerlasting drama in which the all-toohuman players reach out, yearning and shrinking at once, for the deeper truth, and ~eek to bend it to their own purposes and their own rum. 1 747 If Judas in Gilli's play is depicted as the dark brother of Jesus, and if his character and fate are reminiscent of Hamlet's, there may well be deeper reasons for this. One could imagine him more active and aggressive, for instance as a fiery patriot who has to get rid of Jesus from inner necessity, because Jesus as the corrupter of the people obstructs his plans for their liberation, or else because Judas see~ h!m as the political Messiah and then betrays him out 2

[The Jewish War, II, s6;

A.D.

6 or

7Âˇ1

777

XIV. THE SPIRIT IN MAN, ART, AND LITERATURE

of disappointment and rage. In this sense, too, Judas would be his dark brother, since in the story of the Temptation the devil of worldly power stepped up to Jesus in much the same way as Mara tempted the Buddha. Judas might easily have become a hero after the manner of classical drama. But because his dependence catches him on every side and he can scarcely act on his own initiative, he becomes an exponent of the human drama which, though played out within the confines of the earth's shadow, has at all times accompanied the divine drama and often eclipsed it.

GERARD DE NERVAL 1 1748

Gerard de N erval (pseudonym of Gerard Labrunie, I 8o8853) was a lyric poet and translator of Goethe and Heine. He is best known by his posthumously published novel Aurelia, in which he relates the history of his anima and at the same time of his psychosis. The dream at the beginning, of a vast edifice and the fatal fall of a winged daemon, deserves special attention. The dream has no lysis. The daemon represents the self, which no longer has any room to unfold its wings. The disastrous event preceding the dream is the projection of the anima upon "une personne ordinaire de notre siecle," with whom the poet was unable to work on the mysterium and in consequence jilted Aurelia. Thus he lost his "pied a terre" and the collective unconscious could break in. His psychotic experiences are largely descriptions of archetypal figures. During his psychosis the real Aurelia appears to have died, so that his last chance of connecting the unconscious with reality, and of assimilating its archetypal contents, vanished. The poet ended by suicide. The MS of Aurelia was found on his body. I

[Author's abstract of a lecture given to the Psychological Club, Zurich, on 9 June 1945; published in the Club's fahresbericht, 1945-46. A typescript ( 24 pp.) of the entire lecture, made from a stenogram and evidently not corrected by Jung, is in the Jung archives.) 1

779

FOREWORD TO FIERZ-DAYID: ''THE DREAM OF POLIPHIL0" 1 1 749

1750

It must be twenty-five years since Francesco Colonna's Hypnerotomachia Poliphili first came my way in the French translation published by Beroalde de Verville in 1 6oo. Later, in the l\forgan Library, New York, I saw and admired the first Italian edition~ with its superb \voodcuts. I set about reading the book, but soon got lost in the mazes of its architectural fantasies, which no human being can enjoy today. Probably the same thing has happened to many a reader, and we can only sympathize with Jacob Burckhardt, who dismissed it with a brief mention while bothering little about its contents. I then turned to the "Recueil Steganographique," Beroalde's Introduction, and in spite of its turgid and high-flown verbiage I caught fleeting glimpses which aroused my curiosity and encouraged me to continue my labours, for labours they are in a case like this. My efforts found their reward, for plodding on, chapter by chapter, I sensed, rather than recognized, more and more things I was later to encounter in my study of alchemy. Indeed, I cannot even say how far it was this book that put me on the track of the royal art. In any case, not long afterwards I began to collect the old Latin treatises of the alchemists, and in a close study of them lasting many years I did eventually succeed in unearthing those subterranean processes of thought from which sprang not only the world of alchemical imagery but also Poliphilo's dream. What first found expression in the poetry of the minnesingers and troubadours can be heard here as a distant echo of a dreamlike past, but it is also a premonition of the future. Like every proper dream, the Hypnerotomachia is Janus-faced: it is a picture of the Middle Ages on the brink of the Renaissance-a transition between two eras, and therefore highly relevant to the world today, which is e\Âˇen more obYiously a time of transition and change. So it was with considerable interest that I read the manuscript 1 [Linda Fierz-David. Der Liebestraum des Poliphilo, ein Beitrag zur Pyschologie der Renaissance und der .\foderne (Zurich, 1947); trans. by Mary Hottinger, The Dream of Poliphilo (Bollingen Series XXV, New York, 1950). The translation of the foreword is revised here.] ~[Venice, 1499.]

FIERZ-DAVID:

75 I

I75 2

"THE DREAM OF POLIPHILO"

sent me by Mrs. Linda Fierz-David, for it is the first serious attempt to unlock Poliphilo's secret and to unravel its crabbed symbolism with the help of modern psychology. In my opinion, her undertaking has been entirely successful. She has pursued the psychological problem which forms the central theme of the book through all the twists and turns of the story, demonstrating its personal and suprapersonal character as well as bringing to light its significance for the world of that time. ~Iany of her interpretations are so astute and illuminating that this seemingly outlandish and baroque tale, eagerly read in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, is once more brought within the intellectual orbit of the modern reader. With an intelligence equalled only by her intuition, she has painted a picture of that peculiar Renaissance psychology whose literary monument is the Hypnerotomaclzia, while giving that picture a timeless background. Thus, the tale reappears in all the freshness of its original colours and makes a direct appeal to the man of today by virtue of its imperishable psychological truth. On its voyage through uncharted seas, the book owes some of its happiest discoveries to the sensitiveness of the feminine mind, which, delicately indiscreet, can take a peep behind Francesco Colonna's richly ornate baroque fa<;ade. It was because of this feminine gift that St. Catherine was consulted by the heavenly assembly "in all difficult cases," as we learn from Anatole France's amusing account in Penguin Island. "While on earth, St. Catherine had confounded fifty very learned doctors. She was versed in the philosophy of Plato as well as the Scriptures, and possessed rhetoric." Hence, it is no matter for surprise if Mrs. Fierz-David has brought off some dazzling feats of interpretation which throw considerable light on the obscurities of Poliphilo's symbolism. The tortuous ways of the masculine mind, setting traps for itself with its own vanities, are here exposed and illuminated, and modern man would do well to learn from this example. In her commentary, she takes us deep into psychological problems that remain unfathomable to the modern mind and set it a hard task. The book is not easy reading-indeed, it requires some effort. But it is a rich and stimulating repast, and will amply reward the attentive reader who comes to meet it halfway. For myself, I am grateful to the author for the enriched knowledge and insight her book has brought me. February 1946

FOREWORD TO CROTTET: "MONDWALD" 1 I

753

The author of this book is no ordinary explorer, of whom there is no lack nowadays, but one who still understands the almost forgotten art of travelling with all his senses open. This art or, as we might also say, this gift bestowed by the grace of heaven, enables the traveller to bring back from distant shores more than can ever be captured by cameras and tape-recorders, to wit, his own experience through which we glimpse the lure of foreign lands and peoples. This alone makes them come alive for us as we listen to the tale of the clash of two worlds. The "subjectivity" so rightly feared by science here becomes a source of illumination, conveying to us flashes of insight which no description of facts however complete can attain. This is a matter of taking notes with scrupulous objectivity. Instead, the "sensitive traveller" creates an experience which does not, like a factual record, consist merely of the data of the senses and the intellect, but of those countless, indescribable, subliminal impressions which hold the traveller captive in a foreign land. Certainly his objective description tells us a great deal, but his emotion, his being carried away, means far more. It reveals something that cannot be expressed in words: the wholeness of prehistoric nature and preconscious humanity, which for the civilized man and inhabitant of a virtually enslaved earth is utterly alien and unfathomable. All sorts of possibilities hang invisibly in the air, yet somehow we have always known of them; realities of which an age-old, nearly forgotten knowledge in us evokes a distant echo; a longing that looks back to the golden haze of a childhood morning, and forward to fulfilment at the millennium. It is the intimation of a pristine wholeness, lost and now hoped for again, that hovers over the primeval landscape and its inhabitants, and only the story-teller's emotion can bring it home to us. We understand and share his passionate desire to preserve and perpetuate this fathomless splendour, for which a National Park would be but a feeble substitute, and we lament with him the devastation that 1

[Zurich, Stories.")]

I 949Âˇ

By Robert Crottet.

("Moon-Forest,"

subtitled

"Lapp ish

CROTTET:

1754

"MONDWALD"

threatens it because of our civilizing barbarism. In Kenya an old squatter once said to me: "This ain't man's country, it's God's country." Today it is dotted with goldmines, schools, mission stationsand where are the slow rivers of grazing herds, the human dwellings clustering like wasps' nests on yellow and red cliffs beneath the shade of acacias, the soundless eternity of a life without history? The author's aim is to preserve the life of a primitive people, the Lappish Skolts in northern Finland, who have been robbed of their reindeer herds, and thus protect at least a little bit of that primeval age from irremediable disaster. May his wish be granted.

March 1949

FOREWORD TO JACOBI: "PA.R~\CELSUS: SELECTED WRITINGS" 1 The author has asked me for some introductory words to the English edition of her book on Paracelsus. I am more than willing to comply v.·ith this request, for Paracelsus, an almost legendary figure in our time, \vas a preoccupation of mine when I was trying to understand alchemy, especially its connection with natural philosophy. In the sixteenth century, alchemical speculation received a strong impetus from this master, notably from his singular doctrine of "longevity"'-a theme ever dear to the alchemist's heart. I 756 In her book, Dr. Jacobi emphasizes the moral aspect of Paracelsus. She wisely lets the master speak for himself on crucial points, so that the reader can gain first-hand information about this strange Renaissance personality, so amply endowed with genius. The liberal use of original texts, with their \·ivid, imaginative language, helps to develop a striking picture of the man who exerted a powerful influence not only on his own time but on succeeding centuries. I 75 7 A contradictory and controversial figure, Paracelsus cannot be brought into line vv·ith any stereotype-as Sudhoff,:.: for instance, sought to do when, arbitrarily and without a shadow of evidence, he declared that certain aberrant texts were spurious. Paracelsus remains a paradox, like his contemporary, .\grippa von Nettesheim. He is a true mirror of his century, which even at this late date presents many unsoh·ed mysteries. 1758 ~\n excellent feature of Dr. Jacobi's book is her glossary of Paracelsus' concepts, each furnished with a succinct definition. To follow the language of this physician, this natural philosopher and mysI

755

[Written in German; trans., with the entire book, by Norbert Guterman (Bollingen Series XXVIII, New York, 1951 ), and slightly revised here. The original book, edited by Jolande Jacobi (see supra, par. 1 I2I, n. I) was T heophrastus Paracelsus: Lebendiges Erbe ( "Lh·ing Heritage") (Zurich, I 942\ .] ~[Karl Sudhoff, editor of the Siimmtliche Werke of Paracelsus, in I4 vols. (I 922-I 935) .]

JACOBI:

1759

"PARACELS US:

SELECTED WRITINGS"

tic-a language freighted with technical terms and neologisms-is not easy for readers unfamiliar with alchemical writings. The book abounds in pictorial material which, coming for the most part from Paracelsus' time and from the places where he lived, rounds out and sharpens the presentation.

May 1949

FOREWORD TO KANKELEIT: "DAS UNBEWUSSTE ALS KEIMSTATTE DES SCHOPFERISCHEN" 1 Dr. Otto Kankeleit has given me the manuscript of his book and has asked me to write a foreword. It is not a scientific study of a theoretical nature, but a descriptive survey of the multitudinous phenomena and problems which beset the practising psychotherapist in his daily work. It is a kaleidoscopic assortment of images, visions, flickerings on the edge of the mind-a phantasmagoria of all the things the doctor wonders about. He finds himself confronted with a mass of problems stretching into a limitless horizon. That is the particular value of this book: it opens vistas into reaches of the psyche extending far beyond the confines of the consulting room, giving the reader a glimpse into a world hitherto unknown to him. It does not stop short at the pathological and does not apply to the sick the psychopathology of the sick. It leads beyond that to the wide realm of psychic life in general, to an abiding concern with the sick person, for the principal aim of modern medicine is not so much to eliminate the symptoms of sickness as to guide the patient back to a normal and balanced life. 1 76 1 Naturally this can be done only if he is given a balanced picture of the human psyche to offset his morbid and limited experience of it. For this purpose, as the author very rightly points out, it is necessary for doctor and patient to come to terms with the nature of the unconscious, since, for good or ill, they are both involved in its mysterious reality. '762 The book is in many respects extremely instructive for the doctor, and a very sympathetic one because of its unbiased standpoint.

1 76Â°

lung's Contribution Among the "testimonials from scholars, writers, and artists" (subtitle of Dr. Kankeleit's book) are Jung's answers (ibid., pp. 68f.) to the following questionnaire: 1 [Munich and Basel, 1959Âˇ ("The Unconscious as Seedbed of the Creative," subtitled "Testimonials from Scholars, Poets, and Artists.")]

KANKELEIT:

1763

1764

1765

1766

1767

768

"oAS UNBEWUSSTE ALS KEIMSTATTE"

What is the respective share of the conscious and the unconscious in the creative process? Like all psychic life the creative process stems from the unconscious. If you identify with the creative process you usually end up by imagining that you yourself are the creator. Have you, at the onset of a new period of creativity, observed in yourself exceptional states of any kind, in which the unconsczous took the lead? Speaking for myself, I must confess that I always notice the strangest things at the onset of a new period of creativity. (I don't doubt that there are people who never notice such things.) The unconscious takes the lead nightly in our dreams, so it is not at all surprising that it should usher in the creative process with all sorts of spontaneous phenomena. Do you occasionally resort to stimulants of any kind (alcohol, morphine, hashish, etc.)? Oh no! Never! A new idea is intoxicating enough. Do you think dreams play a part in the creative process? For years my dreams used to anticipate my creative activities as well as other things. Have you ever experienced exceptional states of any kind (precognition, telepathy, etc.) which are not dependent on the creative process? On closer analysis, I don't think any exceptional states can be separated from the creative process, because life itself is creativity par excellence. I would like very much to have a detailed description of a creative process. I could give you a detailed description but will not do so because for me the whole thing is too mysterious. I stand in such awe of the great mysteries that I am unable to talk about them. In any case, a close study of any dream series will provide perfect examples.

FOREWORD TO SERRANO: "THE VISITS OF THE QUEEN OF SHEBA" 1 1769

This book is an extraordinary piece of work. It is dreams within dreams, highly poetic I should say, and most unlike the spontaneous products of the unconscious I am used to, although well-known archetypal figures are clearly discernible. The poetic genius has transformed this primordial material into almost musical shapes, just as, conversely, Schopenhauer understood music as the movement of archetypical ideas. The principal formative factor seems to be a strong aesthetic tendency. The reader is caught in an endlessly proliferating dream, in ever-expanding space and immeasurable depths of time. On the other hand the cognitive element plays no significant role-it even recedes into a misty background, yet alive with the wealth of colourful images. The unconscious or whatever we designate by this name presents itself to the author under its poetic aspect, while I envisage it chiefly under its scientific and philosophical or, to be more accurate, its religious aspect. The unconscious is surely the Pammeter, the Mother of All (i.e., of all psychic life), being the matrix, background, and foundation of all the differentiated phenomena we call psychic-religion, science, philosophy, art. The experience of the unconscious, whatever form it may take, is an approach to wholeness, the one experience lacking in our modern civilization. It is the via regia to the Unus Mundus. 1 [Bombay and London (Asia Publishing House), 1960; republished by Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1972. For Miguel Serrano, see Jung's letter of 3 I Mar. I g6o in Letters, ed. G. Adler, vol. 2. The present foreword was originally a letter in English to Serrano, 14 Jan. 1960; here somewhat revised.)

IS THERE :\ TRUE BILINGU:\.LISM?â&#x20AC;˘ I770

Ii7 I

772

I773

You have asked me a question which I cannot answer precisely. I would not be able to define what you understand by "bilingualism." There are certainly people living abroad who have become so used to a new language that they not only think but even dream in the idiom of the country. I, personally, have experienced this after a rather long stay in England. I suddenly caught myself definitely thinking in English. This has never happened to me with the French language, but I noticed that after a comparatively short stay in France my vocabulary unexpectedly increased. This was caused not so much by intense reading of French nor by comÂˇersation with French people, but was more the influence of the atmosphere-if this expression is permissible. This is a fact that has been observed quite often. But once one returns to one "s country these riches generally disappear. I am absolutely convinced that in many cases a second language can be implanted in this fashion-even at the expense of the original language. But as one's memory is not without limit, a bi- or tri-lingual state ends by damaging the scope of one's vocabulary as well as the greatest potential use of each language. [Letter in answer to this question published (in French) m the Flinker Almanac 1961 ( Librairie Fran~,;aise et Etrangere, Paris). For another letter to Martin Flinker, I 7 Oct. I957, published in his Almanac 1958, see Letters, ed. G. Adler, vol. 2.]

XV THE PRACTICE OF PSYCHOTHERAPY (related to Volume 16 of the Collected Works)

REVIEWS OF BOOKS BY HEYER Der Organismus der Seele 1 1774

The author of this book has performed the grateful service of giving a comprehensive account of the chaos-one can hardly say less-that reigns in the field of psychotherapy. I know of no book that grasps the essential problems of modern therapy and its conflicting views in just this knowledgeable, unprejudiced, and wholly impartial manner. Unfortunately, most other books of the kind are written in the interests of some system and therefore suffer from that distressing theoretical narrow-mindedness which, on occasion, borders on sectarian bigotry. ~fany of these authors appear to have forgotten that psychology, of all the sciences, demands the most constant self-criticism. Every psychologist should realize first and foremost that his point of view is his own subjective prejudice. This particular prejudice is certainly no worse than any other, moreover it is extremely likely to be a fundamental assumption with many other people as well. Hence it is generally worth while pursuing one's point of view as far as possible. It will doubtless bear fruit that have a certain usefulness. But under no circumstances should one indulge in the unscientific delusion that one's own subjective prejudice represents a universal and fundamental psychological truth. No true science can spring from this, only a faith whose shadow is intolerance and fantacism. Contradictory views are necessary for the evolution of any science; they must not be set up in opposition to each other, but should seek the earliest possible synthesis. Books like Heyer's ha\Âˇe long been wanting. They are absolutely indispensable if we are ever to create an objective psychology, which can never be the work of a single individual but only the result of the concerted labours of many. Heyer's book offers a conspectus of the main contemporary doctrines of Freud, Adler, and myself. Separate accounts of these may be known to the reader, but until 1

[Europiiische Re1Âˇue (Berlin), IX: 10 (Oct. 1933), 639. Gustav Richard Heyer, Der Organismus der Seele (Munich, 1932); trans. by E. and C. Paul, The Organism of the Mind (London, 1933). For Heyer (t890-1967), see Jung's letter of 20 Apr. 1934, in Letters, ed. G. Adler, vol. 1.]

793

XV. THE PRACTICE OF PSYCHOTHERAPY

now they have not, as a rule, been related to one another, so that each formed a closed system. Heyer's book thus fills a long-felt need. It is written in a lively style and is richly interspersed with the author's own practical experiences-perhaps the most commendable book I know on this subject. Praktische

Seelenheilkunde~

One is often tempted to think that it was a fatal error of medical psychology in the days of its infancy to suppose that the neuroses were quite simple things which could be explained by a single hypothesis. This optimism was probably inevitable; had it been otherwise, perhaps nobody would have plucked up courage to venture any theory about the psyche at all. The difficulties and complications that beset the psychology of neuroses are nowhere more apparent than in the great variety of possible methods of treatment. There are so many of them that the layman in psychiatry may easily be driven to despair when it comes to choosing the method which suits not only the neurosis to be treated but the doctor treating it. We are familiar enough, nowadays, with the idea that physical illnesses derive from all sorts of causes and are subject to all sorts of conditions and therefore generally need treating from various angles; but it is still taken too much for granted that, among all these physical illnesses, a neurosis is just another illness or, at best, another category of illness. The reason for this prejudice is that modern medicine has only recently discovered the "psychological factor" in illness, and now clings to the idea that this "factor" is a simple quantity, one of the many conditioning factors or causes of physical disease. The psyche is thus vested with the kind of reality we concede to a toxin, a bacillus, or a cancer cell; but we are altogether disinclined to attribute to the psyche anything like the real existence with which we unthinkingly endow the body. 1776 In this book, Heyer again presents us, as he did with such signal success in his earlier work Organismus der Seele, with a synoptic view, not of theories this time, but of the practical methods of treatment. He offers a survey, richly documented with case histories, of all the techniques which the psychotherapist requires for his everyday medical work and which are therefore also of great interest

I7 75

[Zentralblatt fur Psychotherapie, IX: 3 ( 1936), 184-86. Heyer, Praktische Seelenheilkunde (Munich, 1935) .]

794

HEYER:

1 777

"PRAKTISCHE SEELENHEILKUNDE"

to the general practitioner. The latter regards his neurotic patients as being physically ill, like the other patients who are suffering from predominantly physical disturbances. Illnesses that are psychogenic in origin are naturally, to his way of thinking, physical, and so his first thought will be of a physical cure. The attitude of the orthodox psychotherapist who makes a sharp cut between neurosis and the pathology of the body is foreign to him. But neuroses, too, are unorthodox things and do not always prove resistant to physical treatment. The truth is that some neuroses are predominantly physical and others predominantly psychological. And often it is a diagnostic feat to make out to which category a particular case belongs. Thus psychotherapy is inevitably, at least for the time being, a curious mixture of psychological and physiological therapeutics. On all this Heyer's book provides a wealth of information that should be of the greatest value to the psychotherapist as well as to the general practitioner and the medical student. It is sometimes said that when many remedies are prescribed for a certain disease, none of them can claim to be particularly efficacious. The multitude of views in psychotherapy does not, however, arise from this source of confusion, but rather from the fact that neurosis is not so much one disease as an amalgam of several diseases which require an equal number of remedies. It is exceedingly probable that the psyche is analogous to the body and is capable of having as many diseases. The future has still to discover a pathology of the psyche to match that of the body. That modest "psychological factor" will, in time, broaden out and cover a field of medical experience no whit inferior to that of the body in scope and significance. Hence we would do well to infer, from the diversity of psychotherapeutic methods, a corresponding diversity of psychopathological states. Every one of the types of treatment mentioned corresponds, up to a point, to one aspect of the so-called "neurosis"-in other words, to a genuine form of sickness. But our present knowledge of psychopathology is not yet sufficiently advanced for us to specify without a doubt what particular form of psychic sickness calls for what treatment. We are still in the position of the physicians in the Middle Ages who, lacking the requisite knowledge of anatomy, physiology, and pathological anatomy, were solely dependent on practical experience, intuition, and the physician's art. They were not necessarily bad doctors for that, any more than primitive medicine-men are bad doctors. It is precisely through the various kinds of treatment, their successes and failures, that we shall

795

XV. THE PRACTICE OF PSYCHOTHERAPY

get to know the various kinds of psychic pathology, psychic biology, and psychic structure. I 778 Heyer's book is an important milestone on the road to the discovery of the diseases of the psyche and their specific remedies. It is written from practical experience and will be particularly valuable to the general practitioner. In its arrangement it relies on clinical pictures of illness; thus Chapter II deals with disturbances in the respiratory and circulatory systems, Chapter III with digestive disturbances, Chapter IX with sexual disturbances, and Chaper X with insomnia. Chapters I, IV, and V form an introduction to psychology. Three chapters deal with the various kinds of therapy. The book is equipped with a very readable appendix by Lucy Heyer, giving an account of the physical aids to psychotherapy, such as gymnastics, breathing, massage, etc. I 779 I regret the absence of a similar account dealing with the artistic and spiritual remedies, for in practice these play no small part along with the purely physical ones. Maldevelopment and inhibitedness exist in the psyche as well as in the body and are in just as much need of exercise and reeducation.

ON THE "ROSARIUM PHILOSOPHORUM" 1 q8o

1 781

The Rosarium is one of the first, if not the first, synoptic texts covering the whole field of alchemy. It may have originated about I 350. The author is anonymous. It has been attributed to Peter of Toledo, who is supposed to have been an older brother of the famous Arnaldus de Villanova ( I 2 35- I 3 I 3). Certain parts of it may date back to the former, but not the whole text, which was first printed in I 550 and contains numerous quotations from Arnaldus. The I 550 edition is a compilation consisting of two different parts, each a separate treatise. There are also interpolations of some length from various authors, for instance a letter of Raymundus Lullius to Rupertum Regem Franciae. (This Rupertus may be identical with Robert I, the Wise, I309-I343Âˇ) The text begins with a kind of preface or introduction in which the author discusses the ''art" in general terms. He emphasizes that the art operates only "within Nature." Only one thing is needed for the procedure, and not several things. Operating "outside Nature" leads nowhere. The author stresses that the laborant must have a sound mental disposition. The art consists in uniting the opposites, which are represented as male and female, form and matter. In addition the 4 roots (radices, rhizomata, elements) are needed. The prima materia (initial material) is found everywhere. It is also called lapis = stone, or "salt" or "water.'' The water (aqua permaens) is identical with argentum vivum (quicksilver). The elements are likewise represented as pairs of opposites: Earth Water)

<Air Fire

I [Author's abstract of two lectures given at the Psychological Club, Zurich, on unknown dates; published in the Club's ]ahresbericht, 1936-37. The symbolic illustrations of the Rosarium philosophorum are used by Jung as a parallel to the modern psychotherapeutic process in "The Psychology of the Transference" (C.W., vol. 16), first published as Die Psychologie der Vbertragung (Zurich, 1946). The present lectures were an early exercise toward that publication.)

797

XV. THE PRACTICE OF PSYCHOTHERAPY

1782

The author warns against taking the terminology literally; only fools would do this. In the preface we find the following verses: Hie lapis exilis extat, precio quoque vilis, Spernitur a stultis, amatur plus ab edoctis. 1. Here stands the mean, uncomely stone, 'Tis very cheap in price! The more it is despised by fools, The more loved by the wise.) 2

1783 1 784

1 785

The "lapis exilis" may correspond to the "lapsit exillis," Wolfram von Eschenbach's name for the Grail. 3 The text proper opens with a pictorial representation of the alchemical process: 4 a fountain from which the aqua permanens flows out of three pipes in the form of lac virginis (virgin's milk), acetum fontis (vinegar of the fount), and aqua vitae (water of life). Above the fountain is a star, with the sun to the left and the moon to the right (as opposites). Surmounting the star is the two-headed ~Iercurial Serpent, symbolizing the contamination of opposites in the unconscious. The picture is flanked by two columns of cloud or smoke, an indication of the "spiritual" (volatile) nature of the process. In the corners are four stars, alluding to the quaternity of the elements. The three springs form the material Trinity (the spirit of God, brooding over the chaos, penetrated into matter and became water). Together with inert matter (earth) they constitute the unity which is indicated by the quaternity of the elements (3+ 1 =4)Âˇ For some alchemists the prima materia is something that can be found everywhere, for others it has first to be produced out of the "imperfect body" or substance. The contradiction resolves itself when one takes account of the amply documented theory of the h umidum radicale: all chemical substances contain, in greater or lesser degree, the moisture, the water of the beginning that was brooded over by the spirit of God. This water was the prima materia. The opening words of the first chapter can thus be understood without difficultv: The imperfect body has been changed into the prima materia, and this water, combined with our water (aqua permanens), produces one 2 [J ung carved the La tin text on a cube of hewn stone at his "Tower" in Bollingen, in 1950. Cf. Memories, Dreams, Reflections, pp. 226f./215f.] 3 [Cf. Psychology and Alchemy, par. 246, n. 125.] 4 [Cf. "The Psychology of the Transference," Fig. 1 .]

798

ON THE "ROSARIUM PHILOSOPHORUM"

pure, clear water (solvent) that purifies everything and contains within itself everything needful (i.e., for the process of self-transformation) . . . . Out of this water and with this water our procedure is brought to completion. But it dissolves the bodies not by means of the common solvent (solutione vulgari), as transmitted by the ignorant who transform the body into rain-water, but by means of the true philosophical solvent in which the body is transformed into the original water whence it arose in the beginning. This same water reduces the bodies themselves to ashes. You must know that the art of alchemy is a gift of the Holy Spirit. The dissolution of the imperfect body transforms it back into the watery initial state, i.e., into the prima materia. The aqua nostra (our water), as is evident from the text and from numerous other sources, is also fire, the baptismal water, and at the same time the Holy Spirit this contains. Aqua nostra is therefore a "spirit water," which is united with the prima materia in the same way as the spirit of God brooded over the water of the beginning and from it created the world. 1 787 The process of creation is performed outwardly through a chemical operation and inwardly through actvve imagination: "And imagine this with the true and not with the fantastic imagination," the text enjoins. 5 Matter was thought of as entirely passive; everything creative and active proceeded from the mind. Aqua nostra as "spirit water" was a chemical body endowed with spirit, which was produced by the art; it was named the "tincture" or "quintessence." Medieval man thought in terms of spirit, whereas we always start with matter. We can understand how matter alters mind, but cannot see how mind can transform matter, although logically there is a reciprocal relationship between the two processes. 1 788 The second chapter is concerned mainly with the secret of the aqua nostra. This water, as we have said, is the humidum radicale, a spirituale corpus also named sapo sapientum ("soap of the wise," a play on words). It is so named in Clavis sapientiae of Alfonso X, king of Castile, who reigned 1252-1284. His treatise is said to be a translation from the Arabic. The humidum radicale is identical with the serpens mercurialis, the dragon, hence is also named "dragon's blood." The body to be transformed must be dissolved in its own liquid, its "blood"; this tincture, the elixir or lapis, is identical with aqua nostra. The texts are very confused on this point. But the confusion is not so bad if one bears in mind that the "water"

1786

s [Psychology and Atchemy, par. 360.]

799

XV. THE PRACTICE OF PSYCHOTHERAPY

789

is either extracted by sublimation from a body that contains a particularly large amount of it, or that the elixir already extracted is used for dissolving the body. The texts deal sometimes with the one and sometimes with the other, or more generally with both at once, as does the Rosarium. Other synonyms for the water are pinguedo (fat), unctuositas, vapor unctuosus (fatty vapour). These basic ideas are developed and embroidered on in the following chapters, particularly the idea of the coniunctio. By this is meant the reunion of the imperfect body with its soul (anima), of which it had been deprived. 6 Here the anima ( = humidum radicale) serves as a vehicle for the spirit, which through active imagination permeates the watery solution. Usually the spirit is active and male, the material body passive and female. (Occasionally it is the other way round!) The male is red (red tincture, red slave, sun, red rose), the female white (white tincture, white spouse, moon, lily, w bite rose). The myth of Gabricus and Bey a is the model for the coniunctio symbolism, 7 one of the commonest and most impressive motifs in alchemy. It is concerned with the problem of opposites projected into matter, with the union of opposites for the purpose of producing a third thing, the Hermaphroditus or Rebis ("consisting of two") ,s or the "living" Stone of the Wise. This symbol is something that originates in man, like a child, and continues to exist in him, as an ancient treatise, probably of Arabic origin and attributed to Rosin us ( Zosimos), says. ("Rosin us ad Sarratantam," Artis auriferae, II, I 593, p. 3 I 1.) The stone has the significance of a panacea, of a drink of immortality, of a redeemer in general, and hence is an allegoria Christi. ["The Psychology of the Transference," Fig. g.] [Ibid., par. 45 7.] s [Ibid., Fig. I o.] 6

8oo

PREFACE TO AN INDIAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOTHERAPP 1790

1791

Dr. Bannerjee has kindly asked me to write a foreword to the special number of this journal devoted to my psychological work. It is a great pleasure to express my appreciation of the attentive interest given to my modest attempts at furthering the development of psychological understanding in general and the deepening of insight into the workings of the unconscious. India with her highly differentiated spiritual culture en joys certain advantages over the European mind, inasmuch as the latter, owing to its origin in ancient Greek culture, is more handicapped by its dependence upon the sensory aspects of the external world. We expect of India and her spiritual attitude a unique contribution-an introspection originating in a different point of view which would compensate the one-sidedness of the European outlook. We look forward hopefully to a collaboration with the Indian mind, knowing that the mystery of the psyche can be understood only when approached from opposite sides. I believe that the coming age will be in desperate need of a common basic understanding of man, which would enable mankind to become a brotherhood rather than a chaos of power-driven usurpers. [Psychotherapy, I: 1 (April 1956:, organ of the Indian Psychotherapeutical Society, Calcutta. Dr. Samiran Bannerjee was honorary secretary. Jung's typescript, in English, is dated 7 Sept. 1955.]

8o1

ON PICTURES IN PSYCHIATRIC DIAGNOSIS 1 I

792

The case that you lay before me presents every ground for thinking of latent schizophrenia. This diagnosis is confirmed by the pictures. There is a distinct tendency to translate living reality into abstractions in order to cut off the emotional rapport with the object. This forces the ego into an unsuitable power stance with the sole aim of domination. His (the artist's) commentary is very enlightening in this respect. Under these conditions there naturally can be no point in looking for symbols of the self, 2 since there is an overwhelming tendency to push the ego into the foreground and suppress the self. The ego is an arbitrary fragment, and the self the unwanted whole. No trace of the latter can be seen in the pictures. 1 [(Translated

by H. N.) Commentary on Walter Pi:ildinger, "Zur Bedeutung bildernischen Gestaltens in der psychiatrischen Diagnostik," Die Therapie des M onats ( Mannheim), IX: 2 (I 959), with reproductions of pictures by a patient. Pi:ildinger was on the staff of a mental hospital in Lucerne.] 2 (Refers to a question asked in regard to one picture.]

XVI THE DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY (related to Volume 1 7 of the Collected Works)

FOREWORD TO EVANS: "THE PROBLEM OF THE NERVOUS CHILD" 1 I

793

I have read the manuscript of Mrs. Evans' book, The Problem of the Nervous Child, with great pleasure and interest. Mrs. Evans' knowledge of her subject-matter is based on a solid foundation of practical experience, an experience gained in the difficult and toilsome treatment and education of nervous children. Whoever has had to deal with nervous children knows what an amount of patience, as well as skill, is needed to guide a child out of a wrong pathological attitude into a normal life. This book, as the reader can see on almost every page, is the fruit of extensive work in the field of neuroses and abnormal characters. Despite the fact that there are numerous books on education, there are very few that concern themselves with a child's most intimate problems in such a careful and painstaking way. It is self-evident that this contribution will be of great value to anyone interested in educational questions. The physician should be particularly indebted to the author, as her book will be a valuable ally in the fight against the widespread evil of neuroses in adults. More and more the neurologist of today realizes that the origin of the nervousness of his patients is very rarely of recent date, but goes back to the early impressions and developments in childhood. There lies the source of many later nervous diseases. Most of the neuroses originate from a wrong psychological attitude which hinders adjustment to the environment or to the individual's own requirements. This wrong psychological position which is at the bottom of almost every neurosis has, as a rule, been built up during the course of the years and very often began in early childhood as a consequence of incompatible familial influences. Knowing this, Mrs. Evans lays much stress on the parent's mental attitude and its importance for the child's psychology. One easily overlooks the enormous power of imitation in children. Parents too easily content themselves with the belief that a thing hidden from the child cannot influence it. They forget that infantile 1

[New York, I 920; London, I 92 1. By Elida Evans, an American child specialist. The foreword appears to have been written in English.]

805

XVI. THE DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY

1794

imitation is less concerned with action than with the parent's state of mind from which the action emanates. I have frequently observed children who were particularly influenced by certain unconscious tendencies of the parents, and, in such cases, I have often advised the treatment of the mother rather than of the child. Through the enlightenment of the parents, their wrong influences can at least be avoided, and thus much can be done for the prevention of later neuroses in the children. The author particularly insists upon the importance of watching the manifestations of the sexual instinct in childhood. Anyone concerned with the education of abnormal children will confirm the existence and the frequency of sexual symptoms in these children. Despite the fact that sexual activity does not belong to the infantile period, it frequently manifests itself in a symptomatic way, as a symptom of abnormal development. An abnormal development does not provide sufficient opportunity for the normal display of the child's energies. Thus, the normal outlet being blocked, the energy accumulates and forcibly seeks an abnormal outlet in premature and perverted sexual interests and activities. Infantile sexuality is the most frequent symptom of a morbid psychological attitude. In my view, it is wrong to consider sexual phenomena in early childhood as the expression of an organic disposition; most of the cases are due to an environment unsuited to the child's psychological nature. The attitude of the child towards life is certainly determined by the inherited disposition, but only to a certain extent; on the other side it is the result of the immediate parental influences and of education. While the inherited disposition cannot be changed, these latter influences can be improved by suitable methods, and thus the original unfavourable disposition can be overcome. Mrs. Evans' book shows the way, and how to treat even the most intricate cases. October 1919

8o6

FOREWORD TO HARDING: "THE WAY OF ALL WOMEN''' 1795

1 796

It is a pleasure to comply with the author's wish that I should write an introduction to her book. I han read her work with the greatest interest, and am gratified to find that it does not come into the category of those sententious books, bristling with prejudices, which expatiate on the psychology of women with gushing eloquence, and finally overflow in a sentimental hymn to "holy motherhood." Such books have another unpleasant characteristic: they never speak of things as they are, but only as they should be, and instead of taking the problem of the feminine psyche seriously, they conveniently gloss over all the dark and disagreeable truths with advice that is as ineffectual as it is patently good. Such books are not always written by men-if they \vere they might be excusable-but many are written by women who seem to know as little about feminine feelings as men do. It is a foregone conclusion among the initiated that men understand nothing of women's psychology as it actually is, but it is astonishing to find that women know nothing of themselves either. However, we are only surprised as long as we nai,Âˇely and optimistically imagine that mankind understands anything fundamental about the psyche. This is indeed one of the most difficult tasks the investigating mind can set itself. The latest developments in psychology show with ever-increasing clarity not only that there are no simple formulas from which the world of the psyche might be derived, but that we have never yet succeeded in defining the field of psychic experience with sufficient exactitude. Despite the immense surface area, scientific psychology has not eÂˇen begun to break down the mountain of prejudices that persistently block the \vay to the psyche as it really is. Psychology is the youngest of the sciences and is suffering from all those childhood ailments which afflicted the adolescence of other sciences in the late Middle :\ges. There still exist psychologies which limit the field of psychic experience to the con1 [New York and London, 1933. The foreword, written in German, was trans. for the book by Cary F. Baynes. The present version is somewhat revised. For Esther Harding, see supra, par. 1 125, n. 1.]

XVI. THE PRACTICE OF PERSONALITY

1 797

1 798

1799

sciousness and its contents, or understand the psyche as a purely reactive phenomenon without any trace of autonomy. The fact of an unconscious psyche has not yet gained undisputed acceptance, despite an overwhelming mass of empirical material which proves beyond all doubt that there can be no psychology of consciousness without a recognition of the unconscious. Lacking this foundation, it is impossible to deal with a psychological datum that is in any way complex, and the actual psyche we have to deal with in real life is complexity itself. Consequently, a psychology of woman cannot be written without an adequate knowledge of the unconscious background of the mind. Drawing on her rich psychotherapeutic experience, Dr. Harding has sketched a picture of the feminine psyche which, in scope and thoroughness, far surpasses previous works in this field. Her presentation is refreshingly free from prejudice and remarkable for the love of truth it displays. Her arguments never lose themselves in dead theories and fanatical fads, which unfortunately are so frequently met with in this field of work, and she has succeeded in penetrating with the light of knowledge into crannies and depths where before darkness prevailed. Only one half of feminine psychology can be grasped with the aid of biological and social concepts, and in this book it becomes clear that woman possesses a peculiar spirituality very strange to man, to which Dr. Harding has devoted a special chapter. Without a knowledge of the unconscious this new aspect, so essential for an understanding of the psychology of woman, could never have been brought out with such clarity and completeness. The fructifying influence of the psychology of the unconscious is also evident in many other places in the book. At a time when the divorce rate has broken all records, when the relation of the sexes has become a perplexing problem, a book like this seems to me of the greatest help. To be sure, it does not provide the one thing everybody expects-a generally acceptable recipe for solving this dreadful tangle of questions in a simple and practical way, so that we need rack our brains about it no longer. On the other hand, the book contains an ample store of what we actually need very badly, and that is understanding-understanding of psychic facts and conditions with the help of which we can orient ourselves in the complicated situations of life. Why after all do we have a psychology? Why is it that we are especially interested in psychology just now? The answer is that everyone is in desperate need of it. Humanity seems to have reached 8o8

HARDING:

r8oo

"THE WAY OF ALL WOMEN"

a point where the concepts of the past are no longer adequate, and we begin to realize that our nearest and dearest are actually strangers to us, whose language we no longer understand. It is beginning to dawn on us that the people living on the other side of the mountain are not made up exclusively of red-headed devils who are responsible for all the evil on this side of the mountain. A little of this uneasy suspicion has filtered through into the relations between sexes; not everyone is utterly convinced that everything good is in "me" and everything evil in "you." Already we can find super-moderns who ask themselves in all seriousness whether there may not be something wrong with us, whether perhaps we are too unconscious, too antiquated, and whether this may not be the reason why when confronted with difficulties in sexual relationships we still continue to employ v.Âˇith disastrous results the methods of the Middle Ages if not those of the caveman. There are indeed people who have read with horror the Pope's Encyclical on Christian marriage, 2 and yet must admit that for cavemen our so-called "Christian" marriage is a cultural step forward. Although we are still far from having overcome our prehistoric mentality, which enjoys its most signal triumphs just in the sphere of sex, where man is made most vividly aware of his mammalian nature, certain ethical refinements have nevertheless crept in which permit anyone with ten to fifteen centuries of Christian education behind him to progress towards a slightly higher level. On this level the spirit-from the biological point of view an incomprehensible psychic phenomenon-plays a not unimportant role psychologically. It had a weighty word to say on the subject of Christian marriage, and it still participates vigorously in the discussion whenever marriage is doubted and depreciated. It appears in a negative capacity as counsel for the instincts, and in a positive one as the defender of human dignity. Small wonder, then, that a wild and confusing conflict breaks out between man as an instinctual creature of nature and man as a spiritual and cultural being. The worst thing about it is that the one is forever trying violently to suppress the other in order to bring about a so-called harmonious solution of the conflict. Unfortunately, too many people still believe in this procedure, which is all-powered in politics; there are only a few here and there who condemn it as barbaric and would like to set up in its place a just compromise whereby each side of man's nature is given a hearing. 2

[Casti Connubii of Pius XI, 3 I Dec.

930.]

8og

XVI. THE PRACTICE OF PERSONALITY 1801

1802

But unhappily, in the problem between the sexes, no one can bring about a compromise by himself alone; it can only be achieved in relation to the other sex. Hence the need for psychology! On this level, psychology becomes a kind of special pleading-or rather, a method of relationship. It guarantees real knowledge of the other sex instead of arbitrary opinions, which are the source of the incurable misunderstandings now undermining in increasing numbers the marriages of our time. As a weighty contribution to this striving for a deeper knowledge of human nature and for a clarification of the confusion in the relations between the sexes, Dr. Harding's book is heartily to be welcomed.

February 1932

810

DEPTH PSYCHOLOGY AND SELF-KNOWLEDGE 1

1803

I8o4

Is depth psychology a new way to self-knowledge? Yes, depth psychology must be termed a new way, because in all the methods practised up to now no account was taken of the existence of the unconscious. Thus a new factor entered our field of vision, which has seriously complicated and fundamentally altered the situation. Formerly, the fact had not been reckoned with that man is a "twofold" being-a being with a conscious side which he knows, and an unconscious side of which he knows nothing but which need be no secret to his fellows. How often one makes all sorts of mistakes without being conscious of them in the least, while they are borne in upon others all the more painfully! Man lives as a creature whose one hand doesn't know what the other is doing. The recognition that we have to allow for the existence of an unconscious is a fact of revolutionary importance. Conscience as an ethical authority extends only as far as consciousness extends. When a man lacks self-knowledge he can do the most astonishing or terrible things without calling himself to account and without ever suspecting what he is doing. Unconscious actions are always taken for granted and are therefore not critically evaluated. One is then surprised at the incomprehensible reactions of one's neighbours, whom one holds to be responsible; that is, one fails to see what one does oneself and seeks in others the cause of all the consequences that follow from one's own actions. Marriages furnish an instructive example of how easily one sees the mote in another's eye but not the beam in one's own. Of far greater, indeed truly monstrous, proportions are the projections of war propaganda, when the lamentably bad manners of civil life are exalted into a principle. Our unwillingness to see our own faults and the projection of them on to others is the source of most quar[Written in answer to questions from Dr. Jolande Jacobi. Published in DU: Schweizerische M onatsschrift (Zurich), III: 9 (Sept. 1943), and in an English trans. by an unknown hand in Horizon (London), VIII:48 (Dec. 1943). This trans. is reproduced here in revised form. It was previously published in Spring, 1969.] 1

XVI. THE PRACTICE OF PERSONALITY

rels, and the strongest guarantee that injustice, animosity, and persecution will not easily die out. When one remains unconscious of oneself one is frequently unaware of one's own conflicts; indeed the existence of unconscious conflicts is actually held to be impossible. There are many marriages in which the partners skirt round every possible conflict with the greatest caution, the one actually imagining himself to be immune from such things, while the other is filled to the neck with laboriously repressed complexes and almost choked by them. Such a situation often has injurious effects on the children too. We know that children often have dreams dealing with the unconfessed problems of their parents. These problems weigh upon the children because the parents, being themselves unconscious of them, have never attempted to come to grips with their own difficulties, and this creates something like a poisoning of the atmosphere. For this reason the neuroses of childhood depend to a considerable degree upon the parents' conflicts.

How is depth psychology distinguished from the previous methods of psychological research? Where does it coalesce with other disciplines? I8os Psychology up till now took no account of the motivation of conscious contents due to the existence of the unconscious. Once the unconscious is included in the calculation, everything suddenly gets a double bottom, as it were. We have to look at everything from two sides, whereas the old psychology was satisfied with the contents of consciousness. Thus the old method of explaining the appearance of psychogenic (psychologically caused) symptoms could rest content with the supposition that they were auto-suggested figments of the imagination. The modern explanation, which lets the unconscious psyche of the patient have its say, investigates his dreams, fantasies, and complexes, i.e., that segment of his lifehistory which is responsible for the formation of the symptoms. No one questions today that neurotic symptoms are produced by processes in the unconscious. The conscious realization of the unconscious causative factors therefore has a definite therapeutic value. Psychogenic symptoms are products of the unconscious. These symptom also include various opinions and convictions which, though they may be uttered consciously enough, nevertheless are determined in reality by unconscious motives. Thus a too importunate and one-sided assertion of principles can often be traced back to an unconscious failure to live up to them. I knew someone, for instance, who, on every occasion, suitable or not, paraded his princi812

DEPTH PSYCHOLOGY AND SELF-KNOWLEDGE

ple of honesty and truthfulness before the public. As I soon discovered, he suffered from a rather too lively imagination, which now and then seduced him into gross lies. The whole question of truth therefore occasioned in him a not undeserved "sentiment d'incompletude," which in turn moved him to exceptionally loud ethical protestations, no small part of whose aim was to beget in himself a conviction of honesty. 18o6 With the recognition that every conscious process rests in part upon an unconscious one and may represent it symbolically, our previous views of psychic causality are radically called into question. Direct causal sequences in consciousness appear doubtful, and every experience of psychic contents urgently requires them to be supplemented by their unconscious aspect. Although depth psychology is a discipline in itself, it lurks invisibly, thanks to the fact of the unconscious, in the background of all other disciplines. Just as the discovery of radioactivity overthrew the old physics and necessitated a revision of many scientific concepts, so all disciplines that are in any way concerned with the realm of the psychic are broadened out and at the same time remoulded by depth psychology. It raises new problems for philosophy; it greatly enriches pedagogics and still more the study of human character; it also poses new problems for criminology, especially as regards criminal motives; for medicine it opens up an unsuspected store of fresh insights and possibilities through the discovery of the interdependence of bodily and psychic processes and the inclusion of the neurotic factor; and it has richly fecundated, less closely related sciences such as mythology, ethnology, etc. 1

Are the various schools of depth psychology similar in their aims? 8Â°7 The difference between the principal schools of depth psychology up to date are based upon as many different aspects of the unconscious. The unconscious possesses a biological, a physiological, a mythical, a religious aspect, and so on. This means that the most varied conceptions are not only possible but even necessary. Each has its own justification, though none to the exclusion of others, for the unconscious is a highly complex phenomenon to which one single concept can never do justice. One cannot judge a person from a moral standpoint only, for example, but has to regard him from this standpoint too! Certain contents of the unconscious can be understood as strivings for power, others as the expression of sexual or other drives, while yet others allow no explanation in terms of biological drives under any circumstances. 813

XVI. THE PRACTICE OF PERSONALITY

Has ((analytical psychology," i.e., the jungian school of depth psychology, definite guiding principles? I8o8

I should prefer not to use the term "guiding principles" in this connection. Just because of the extreme variety and complexity of the aspects of the unconscious and its possible meanings, every "guiding principle" works as an arbitrary assumption, as an actual prejudice that tries to anticipate its irrational manifestations, though these cannot be determined in advance, and perhaps force them into an unsuitable mould. One must avoid all assumptions so far as possible in order to grasp the pure manifestation itself. This must carry its own interpretation with it, to such an extent that its significance is immediately evident from the nature of the phenomenon and is not forced upon it by the observer. He must, in fact, accustom himself to be guided more by the material than by his own opinions, however well founded they may appear to him. Every item of psychic experience presents itself in an individual form, even though its deeper content may be collective. One can never determine in advance, however, which of its principal aspects lies concealed behind the individual form. "Guiding principles" are therefore admissible at most as working hypotheses, and this only in the realm of scientific research. The practical material is best accepted mente vacua (without any preconceived theories) . What are the principal tools of analytical psychology? Does the interpretation of dreams occupy a central place?

1 Bog

The analytical situation has a fourfold aspect: (a) The patient gives me in his own words a picture of the situation as he consciously sees it. (b) His dreams give me a compensating picture of the unconscious aspect of it. (c) The relational situation in which the patient is placed vis-a-vis the analyst adds an objective side to the two other subjective ones. (d) Working through the material collected under a, b, and c fills out the total picture of the psychological situation. The necessity of working through it arises from the fact that the total picture often stands in the liveliest contrast to the views of the ego-personality and therefore leads to all sorts of intellectual and emotional reactions and problems, which in their turn clamour for solution and answer. Since the final goal of the undertaking can only consist in restoring the original wholeness of the personality in a viable form, one cannot dispense with a knowledge of the unconscious. The purest product of the unconscious is the dream. The dream points directly to the unconscious, for it "happens" and we have not invented it. It brings us unfalsified material. 814

DEPTH PSYCHOLOGY AND SELF-KNOWLEDGE

1810

What has passed through consciousness is already sifted and remodelled. As we can deduce from the lava ejected by a volcano the constitution of the strata from which it comes, so we can draw deductions as to the unconscious situation from the contents of dreams. Only dream material plus conscious material reveals the picture of the whole man. And only in this way can we find out who our antagonist is. Although dreams disclose the unconscious to us with perhaps the nearest approach to faithfulness we can attain, we also come upon its traces in every form of creative activity, such as music and poetry, and in all other forms of art. It appears in all manifestations of a spontaneous and creative kind, the further these are removed from everything mechanical, technical, and intellectual. As well as from dreams we can therefore draw conclusions from such things as drawings in which patients are encouraged to reveal their inner images. Although obviously the personality of the patient holds the centre of our attention, and introspection is an indispensable instrument of our work in common, yet this is anything rather than breading. Brooding is a sterile activity which runs round in a circle and never reaches a reasonable goal. It is not work but a weakness, even a vice. On the other hand, if you feel out of sorts, you can legitimately make yourself an object of serious investigation, just as you can earnestly search your conscience without lapsing into moral weakness. Anyone who is in bad odour with himself and feels in need of improvement, anyone who in brief wishes to "grow," must take counsel with himself. Unless you change yourself inwardly too, outward changes in the situation are worthless or even harmful. It is not enough to jump up, puff yourself out, and shout: "I take the responsibility!" Not only mankind but fate itself would like to know who promises to take this weighty step and whether it is someone who can take the responsibility. We all know that anyone can say so. It is not the position that makes the man, but the man who does his work. Therefore self-searching, with the help of one or more persons, is-or rather should be-the essential condition for taking on a higher responsibility, even if it is only that of realizing the meanin~ of individual life in the best possible form and to the fullest possible degree. Nature always does that, but without responsibility, for this is the fated and divinely allotted task of man. Is not an important milestone in the development of self-knowledge, which has increased the difficulties of the "way to onself," to be 815

XVI. THE PRACTICE OF PERSO::\'ALITY

1 8 11

1812

found in the Reformation and in the loss of confession for Protestants, and so for millions of people? Has not self-searching become keener and deeper because of the loss of the dialogue that the Catholic has with his confessor, and the loss of absolution? The difficulties haYe indeed become enormously greater, as eYidenced by the increased prevalence of complexes among Protestants, which has been statistically established. But these increased difficulties constitute-if the Protestant will really face and grapple with them-an exceptionally advantageous basis for self-knowledge. They can, howeyer, just as easily lead, precisely because a confessor is lacking, either to sterile brooding or to thoughtless superficiality. ~lost people need someone to confess to, otherwise the basis of experience is not sufficiently real. They do not "hear" themselves, cannot contrast themsel\'es with something different, and thus they ha\'e no outside "control." Everything flows inwards and is answered only by oneself, not by another, someone different. It makes an enormous difference whether I confess my guilt only to myself or to another person. This being throÂˇwn back upon themsel\'es often leads Protestants to spiritual arrogance and to isolation in their own ego. Although analytical psychology guards against being considered a substitute for confession, in practice it must often function willy-nilly as such. There are so many Catholics who no longer go to confession, and still more Protestants who do not e\Âˇen know what confession is, that it is not surprising some of them yield to their need of communication and share their burdens with an analyst in a way which could almost be called confession. The difference, ho\,:e\'er, is considerable, inasmuch as the doctor is no priest, no theological and moral authority, but, at best, a sympathetically listening confidant with some experience of life and knowledge of human nature. There is no admonition to repentance unless the patient does it himself, no penance unless-as is almost the rule-he has got himself in a thorough mess, and no absolution unless God has mercy on him. Psychology is admittedly only a makeshift, but at the present time a necessary one. \Vere it not a necessity it would ha\'e collapsed long ago from inner emptiness. It meets a need that unquestionably exists. Does a knowledge of the ÂŤother side," that is, one)s own unconscious side, bring relief, release? Does not self-knowledge rather increase the tension betu:een what one is and what one would like to be? Being able to talk things oYer freely can in itself be a great

8!6

DEPTH PSYCHOLOGY AND SELF-KNOWLEDGE

relief. In general, working with the unconscious brings an increase of tension at first, because it activates the opposites in the psyche by making them conscious. This entirely depends, though, on the situation from which one starts. The carefree optimist falls into a depression because he has now become conscious of the situation he is in. On the other hand, the pressure on the inward brooding person is released. The initial situation decides whether a release or increase of pressure will result. Through self-searching in analysis people suddenly become aware of their real limitations. How often a woman has previously felt herself a snow-white dove and had no suspicion of the devil concealed within her! Without this knowledge she can neither be healed nor attain wholeness. For one person deeper knowledge of himself is a punishment, for another a blessing. In general, every act of conscious realization means a tensing of opposites. It is in order to avoid this tension that people repress their conflicts. But if they become conscious of them, they get into a corresponding state of tension. This supplies in turn the driving power for a solution of the problems they are faced with. 18I3

Doesn't a systematic preoccupation with oneself lead to egocentricity? At first glance, from an external and superficial point of view, it does make one egocentric. But I consider this justifiable up a point. One must occupy oneself with oneself; otherwise one does not grow, otherwise one can never develop! One must plant a garden and give it increasing attention and care if one wants vegetables; otherwise only weeds flourish. "Egocentric" has an unpleasant undertone of pathological egoism. But as I have said, occupation with and meditation on one's own being is an absolutely legitimate, even necessary activity if one strives after a real alteration and improvement of the situation. Outwardly changing the situation, doing something else, forgetting what one was, alters nothing essential., Indeed, even when a bad man does good, he is nevertheless not good but suffers from a good symptom without being altered in character. How many drinkers, for example, have turned teetotalers without being freed from their psychic alcoholism! And only too soon they succumbed again to their vice. There are essentially bad natures that actually specialize in being good and, if they chance to become some kind of educator, the results are catastrophic. A systematic preoccupation with oneself serves a purpose. It is work and achievement. Often, in fact, it is much better to educate oneself first before one educates others. It is by no means certain that the

XVI. THE PRACTICE OF PERSONALITY

man with good intentions is under all circumstances a good man. If he is not, then his best intentions will lead to ruin as daily experience proves.

1 814

Doesn't an exact knowledge of one's own nature with a!l its contradictions and absurdities, make one unsure? Doesn't it weaken selfconfidence and so lessen the ability to survive in the battle of life? Much too often people have a pathetic cocksureness which leads them into nothing but foolishness. It is better to be unsure because one then becomes more modest, more humble. It is true that an inferiority complex always harbours within it the danger of outdoing itself and compensating the supposed lack by a flight into the opposite. Wherever an inferiority complex exists, there is good reason for it. There actually is an inferiority of some kind, though not precisely where one is persuaded it is. :Modesty and humility are not the signs of an inferiority complex. They are highly estimable, indeed admirable, virtues and not complexes. They prove that their fortunaâ&#x20AC;˘e possessor is not a presumptuous fool, but knows his own limitations, and will therefore never stumble beyond the bounds of humanity, dazzled and intoxicated by his imagined greatness. The people who fancy they are sure of themselves are the ones who are truly unsure. Our life is unsure, and therefore a feeling of unsureness is much nearer to the truth than the illusion and the bluff of sureness. In the long run it is the better-adapted man who triumphs, not the wrongly self-confident, who is at the mercy of dangers from without and within. Measure not by money or power! Peace of soul means more.

Can depth psychology assist social adaptation and increase the capacity for human contacts? ,815 The increased self-knowledge which depth psychology necessitates also creates greater possibilities of communication: you can interpret yourself in the analytical dialogue and learn through selfknowledge to understand others. In that way you become more just and more tolerant. Above all, you can remedy your own mistakes, and this is probably the best chance of making a proper adaptation to society. Naturally you can also make wrong use of self-knowledge, just as any other knowledge.

,s,6

Has self-knowledge a healing, liberating effect? Repentance, confession, and purification from sin have always been the conditions of salvation. So far as analysis helps confession, it can be said to bring about a kind of renewal. Again and again 8r8

DEPTH PSYCHOLOGY AND SELF-Kl"OWLEDGE

we find that patients dream of the analysis as of a refreshing and purifying bath, or their dreams and visions present symbols of rebirth, which show unmistakably that knowledge of their unconscious and its meaningful integration in their psychic life give them renewed vitality, and do indeed appear to them as a deliverance from otherwise unavoidable disaster or from entanglement in the skeins of fate.

How does the integration of the unconsczous express itself in the actual psychic situation? 1817

This question can be answered only in a very general sense. Individuality is so varied that in each single case the integration of the unconscious takes place in a different and unforeseen way. One could describe this only with the help of concrete examples. The human personality is incomplete so long as \Ve take simply the ego, the conscious, into account. It becomes complete only when supplemented by the unconscious. Therefore knowledge of the unconscious is indispensable for every true self-investigation. Through its integration, the centre of the personality is displaced from the limited ego into the more comprehensive self, into that centre which embraces both realms, the conscious and the unconscious, and unites them with each other. This self is the mid-point about which the true personality turns. It has therefore been since remotest times the goal of every method of development based upon the principle of self-knowledge, as, for example, Indian yoga proves. From the Indian standpoint our psychology looks like a "dialecticar' yoga. I must remark, however, that the yogi has quite definite notions as to the goal to be reached and does everything to attain this postulated goal. With us, intellectualism, rationalism, and voluntarism are such dangerous psychic forces that psychotherapy must whenever possible avoid setting itself any such goal. If the goal of wholeness and of realizing his originally intended personality should grow naturally in the patient, we may sympathetically assi~t him towards it. If it does not grow of itself, it cannot be implanted without remaining a permanent foreign body. Therefore we renounce such artifices when nature herself is clearly not working to this end. As a medical art, equipped only with human tools, our psychotherapy does not presume to preach salvation or a \Vav thereto, for that does not lie within its power.

FOREWORD TO SPIER: "THE HANDS OF CHILDREl'\" 1 J8J8

18 19

Chirology is an art which dates back to very ancient times. The ancient physicians never hesitated to make use of such auxiliary techniques as chiromancy and astrology for diagnostic purposes, as is shown, for instance, by the little book written by Dr. Goclenius,Z who lived at the end of the sixteenth century in Wiirzburg. The rise of the natural sciences and hence of rationalism in the eighteenth century brought these ancient arts, which could look back on a thousand or more years of history, into disrepute, and led to the rejection of everything that, on the one hand, defied rational explanation and verification by experiment or, on the other, made too exclusive a claim on intuition. On account of the uncertainty and paucity of scientific knowledge in the }fiddle Ages, even the most conscientious thinkers were in danger of applying their intuition more to the promotion of supersitition than of science. Thus all early, and particularly medie\路al, treatises on palmistry are an inextricable tangle of empiricism and fantasy. To establish a scientific method and to obtain reliable results it was necessary, first of all, to make a clean sweep of all these irrational procedures. In the twentieth century, after two hundred years of intensive scientific progress, we can risk resurrecting these almost forgotten arts which have lingered on in semi-obscurity and can test them in the light of modern knowledge for possible truths. The \路iew of modern biology that man is a totality, supported by a host of observations and researches, does not exclude the possibility that hands, those organs so intimately connected with the psyche, might reveal by their shape and functioning the psychic peculiarities of the individual and thus furnish eloquent and intelligible clues to his character. Modern science is steadily abandoning 1 (Translated from a German MS by Victor Grove for the English trans. of Julius Spier, The Hands of Children: An Introduction to Psycho-chirology (London, I 9441 ; 2nd edn., I 955, with an appendix, "The Hands of the :.\fentally Diseased," by Herta Le\路i. The trans. has been re\路ised.] ~ [Rodolphus Goclenius, Uranoscopiae, chiroscopiae, metoposcopiae et opthalmoscopiae contemplatio (frankfurt, 1608).

820

SPIER:

182o

I82I

"THE HANDS OF CHILDREN"

the medieval conception of the dichotomy of body and mind, and just as the body is now seen to be something neither purely mechanical nor chemical, so the mind seems to be but another aspect of the living body. Conclusions drawn from one as to the nature of the other seem therefore to be within the realm of scientific possibility. I have had several opportunities of observing Mr. Spier at work, and must admit that the results he has obtained have made a lasting impression on me. His method, though predominantly intuitive, is based on wide practical experience. Experiences of this nature can be rationalized to a large extent, that is to say they admit of a rational explanation once they have happened. Apart from routine, however, the manner in which they are obtained depends at all decisive points on a finely differentiated, creative intuition which is in itself a special talent. Hence persons with nothing but an average intelligence can hardly be expected to master the method. There is, nevertheless, a definite possibility that people who are intuitively gifted will be able to obtain similar results provided they are properly taught and trained. Intuition is not by any means an isolated gift but a regular function which is capable of being developed. Like the functions of seeing and hearing it has a specific field of experience and a specific range of knowledge based upon this. The findings presented in this book are of fundamental importance for psychologists, doctors, and teachers. Spier's chirology is a valuable contribution to the study of human character in its widest sense.

FORE\\'ORD TO THE HEBREW EDITION OF JUNG: .. PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUC.\ TION'' 1 1

822

182 3

18 2 4

I ha\·e before me the Hebrew edition of my essays on psychology and education.~ ::\ot knowing this language, I am unable to appre· ciate the merits of the translation, so I can only bid it welcome as a .. firstling"' that is unique in my experience. ~\s the study of the child psyche and the question of education may fairly be said to occupy a privileged position today, it does not seem inappropriate that the contributions of analytical psychology should receive some attention. I ha\·e never made the child psyche an object of special research, but ha\·e merely collected experiences from my psychotherapeutic practice. These do however give rise to a number of interesting observations, firstly in regard to adults who ha\·e not yet rid themselves of their disturbing infantilism, secondly in regard to the complex relations between parents and children, and thirdly in regard to the children themselves. The complex psychology of the child and in particular the psychic disorders of children are more often than not causally connected with the psychology of the parents, and in most cases one would do well to pay more attention to the faulty attitude of parents and educators than to the child's psyche, which in itself would function correctly if it were not disturbed by the harmful influence of the parents. The most important question next to the education of the child is the education of the educator. I hope these essays will prO\·e stimulating in this respect, which is the one I would recommend to the especial consideration of the reader. [Tel-.-\\-iv. 1958. Trans. here from the original German ~IS.] [''Psychic Conflicts in a Child,'' "Analytical Psychology and Education," and ''The Gifted Child" (C. W., voL I7), the contents of Psychologie und Erziehung ( 1946\.] 1

ADD END A

FOREWORD TO "PSYCHOLOGISCHE ABHANDLU:\GEN," VOLU~IE P

I825

The Psychologische Abhandlungen (Psychological Papers) comprise the works of my friends and pupils as well as other colleagues, and also my own contributions to psychology. In accordance with the character of our psychological interests, this series will include not only works in the area of psychopathology, but also investigations of a general psychological nature. The present state of psychology seems to make it advisable that schools or movements have their own organs of publication; in this way a troublesome scattering of works among many different periodicals can be avoided, and mutuality of outlook can achieve suitable expression through publication in one consistent place.

Kusnacht-Zurich, May 1914

The Editor:

C. G. juNG

1 [ (Translated by L. R.) Leipzig and Vienna: Deuticke, I 9 I 4Âˇ The volume contained papers by Josef Lang, ]. Vodoz, Hans Schmid, and C. Schneiter. The series was not used again until I 928, when Jung published Vber die Energetik der Seele as vol. II (Zurich: Rascher, henceforward). This and the succeeding volumes were devoted to Jung's writings, sometimes with contributions by colleagues: III ( I93I ), Seelenprobleme der Gegenwart, with a contribution by W. M. Kranefeldt; IV (I 934), Wirklichkeit der Seele, with contributions by Hugo Rosenthal, Emma Jung, and W. M. Kranefeldt; V (I944), Psychologie und Alchemie; VI (I 948), Symbolik des Geistes, with a contribution by R. Scharf; VII (I 950), Gestaltungen des Unbewussten, with a contribution by Aniela Jaffe; VIII (I 951), A ion, with a contribution by M.-L. von Franz; IX (I954), Von den Wurzeln des Bewusstseins; X-XII (1955-s6), Mysterium Coniunctionis, with a contribution by M.-L. von Franz ( = an edition of Aurora Consurgens, constituting vol. XII).]

ADDRESS AT THE PRESEl'\TATION OF THE JUNG CODEX 1

Mr. PresidentJ Mr. MinisterJ viri magnificiJ Ladies and Gentlemen! It gives me much pleasure to accept this precious gift in the name of our Institute. For this I thank you, and also for the surprising and undeserved honour you have done me in baptising the Codex with my name. I would like to express my special thanks both to Mr. Page, who through generous financial assistance made the purchase of the papyrus possible, and to Dr. Meier, who through unflagging efforts has given it a home. I8 2 7 Dr. Meier has asked me to say a few words to you about the psychological significance of Gnostic texts. Of the four tracts con-

I826

l [ (Translation revised and augmented by L. R.) The text of this address given above, pars. I5I4-I5I7 (q.v.), was obtained by the Editors from the Jung archives at Kiisnacht in the early I 96o's and was assigned to R.F.C. Hull for translation on the assumption that it represented the text that Jung read at the convocation in Zurich, I 5 Nov. I 953Âˇ In I 975, when the present vol. was in page proof, a considerably augmented version was published (in German) by Professor Gilles Quispel as an appendix to the volume C. G. fung: een mens voor deze tijd (Rotterdam), consisting of essays (in Dutch) on Jung's work by Quispel ( "Jung and Gnosis"), C. Aalders, and ]. H. Plokker. Quispel had obtained this text of the Address some years earlier from one of the persons who had arranged the convocation. Subsequently, Professor C. A. Meier provided an even fuller version of Jung's actual remarks, and that is translated here (the added material being indicated by a vertical line in the left margin). Jung had first written the shorter version, then had expanded it prior to the occasion, but the shorter version had been circulated. George H. Page, of Switzerland, donated funds that enabled the Jung Institute to purchase the Codex from the estate of Albert Eid, a Belgian dealer in antiquities who had acquired it in Egypt. Professor Meier, then director of the Institute, had played the leading role in tracing and negotiating for the Codex. In accordance with the original agreement, the Codex was eventually given to the Coptic Museum in Cairo.]

826

ADDRESS AT THE PRESENTATION OF THE JUNG CODEX

tained in this codex, I should like to single out especially the Evangelium V eritatis, an important Valentinian text that affords us some insight into the mentality of the second century A.D. "The Gospel of Truth" is less a gospel than a highly interesting commentary on the Christian message. It belongs therefore to the series of numerous "phenomena of assimilation," its purpose being to assimilate this strange and hardly understandable message to the Hellenistic-Egyptian world of thought. It is evident that the author was appealing to the intellectual understanding of his reader, as if in remembrance of the words: "We preach Christ crucified, unto the Jews a stumbling-block, and unto the Greeks foolishness" (I Cor. 1.23). For him Christ was primarily a metaphysical figure, a lightbringer, who went forth from the Father in order to illuminate the stupidity, darkness, and unconsciousness of mankind and to lead the individual back to his origins through self-knowledge. This deliverance from agnosia relates the text to the accounts which Hippolytus, in his Elene hos, has left of the Gnostics, and of the N aassenes and Peratics in particular. There we also find most of what I call the "phenomena of assimilation." By this term I mean to delineate those specifically psychic reactions aroused by the impact that the figure and message of Christ had on the pagan world, most prominently those allegories and symbols such as fish, snake, lion, peacock, etc., characteristic of the first Christian centuries, but also those much more extensive amplifications due to Gnosticism, which clearly were meant to illuminate and render more comprehensible the metaphysical role of the Saviour. For the modem mind this accumulation of symbols, parables, and synonyms has just the opposite effect, since it only deepens the darkness and entangles the lightbringer in a network of barely intelligible analogies. r8 2 8 Gnostic amplification, as we encounter it in Hippolytus, has a character in part hymn-like, in part dream-like, which one invariably finds where an aroused imagination is trying to clarify an as yet still unconscious content. These are, on the one hand, intellectual, philosophical-or rather, theosophical-speculations, and, on the other, analogies, synonyms, and symbols whose psychological nature is immediately convincing. The phenomenon of assimilation mainly represents the reaction of the psychic matrix, i.e., the unconscious, which becomes agitated and responds with archetypal images, thereby demonstrating to what degree the message has penetrated into the depths of the psyche and how the unconscious interprets the phenomenon of Christ.

ADDENDA

It is not likely that the Gnostic attempts at elucidation met with success i!l the pagan world, quite aside from the fact that the Church very soon opposed them and whenever possible suppressed them. Luckily during this process some of the best pieces (to judge by their content) were preserved for posterity, so that today we are in a position to see in what way the Christian message was taken up by the unconscious of that age. These assimilation phenomena are naturally of especial significance for psychologists and psychiatrists, who are professionally concerned with the psychic background, and this is the reason why our Institute is so interested in acquiring and translating authentic Gnostic texts. 1 830 Although suppressed and forgotten, the process of assimilation that began with Gnosticism continued all through the Middle Ages, and it can still be observed in modern times whenever individual consciousness is confronted with its own shadow, or the inferior part of the personality. This aspect of human personality, which is most often repressed owing to its incompatibility with one's selfimage, does not consist only of inferior characteristics but represents the entire unconcious; that is, it is almost always the first form in which unconsciousness brings itself to the attention of consciousness. Freud's psychology occupied itself exclusively, so to speak, with this aspect. Behind the shadow, however, the deeper layers of the unconscious come forward, those which, so far as we are able to ascertain, consist of archetypal, sometimes instinctive, structures, so-called "patterns of behaviour." Under the influence of extraordinary psychic situations, especially life crises, these archetypal forms or images may spontaneously invade consciousness, in the case of sick persons just as in the case of healthy ones. The general rule, however, is that modern man needs expert help to become conscious of his darkness, because in most cases he has long since forgotten this basic problem of Christianity: the moral and intellectual agnosia of the merely natural man. Christianity, considered as a psychological phenomenon, contributed a great deal to the development of consciousness, and wherever this dialectical process has not come to a standstill we find new evidence of assimilation. Even in medieval Judaism a parallel process took place over the centuries, independently of the Christian one, in the Kabbala. Its nearest analogy in the Christian sphere was philosophical alchemy, whose psychological affinities with Gnosticism can easily be demonstrated. r83 1 The urgent therapeutic necessity of confronting the individual with his own dark side is a secular continuation of the Christian

r829

828

ADDRESS AT THE PRESENTATION OF THE JUNG CODEX

development of consciousness and leads to phenomena of assimilation similar to those found in Gnosticism, the Kabbala, and Hermetic philosophy. 1832 The reactions of the matrix that we observe these days are not only comparable, both in form and in content, with Gnostic and medieval symbols, but presumably are also of the same sort, and have the same purpose as well, in that they make the figure of Hyios tou anthropou, Son of 1-fan, the innermost concern of the individual, and also expand it into a magnitude comparable with that of the Indian purusha-atman, the anima mundi. At this time, however, I would prefer not to go any further into these modern tendencies, which indeed were developing among the Gnostics. 1833 Since comparison with these earlier historical stages is of the greatest importance in interpreting the modern phenomena, the discovery of authentic Gnostic texts is, especially for the direction our research is taking, of the greatest interest, all the more so in that it is not only of a theoretical but also of a practical nature. If we seek genuine psychological understanding of the human being of our own time, we must know his spiritual history absolutely. We cannot reduce him to mere biological data, since he is not by nature merely biological but is a product also of spiritual presuppositions. 1 834 I must unfortunately content myself with these bare outlines in attempting to explain our interest in a Gnostic text. Further proof of our interest in Gnosticism and detailed explanations may be found in a number of studies that have already been published.

BIBLIOG RAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The bibliography does not, as a rule, list works that are the source of contents of this volume. Details of such works are given in the initial footnote of the respective items of contents. ADAMSKI, GEORGE, with DESMOND LESLIE. Flying Saucers Have Landed. London, I953· ADLER, GERHARD. Entdeckung der Seele; Von Sigmund Freud und Alfred Adler zu C. G. Jung. Zurich, I934· - - - . Studies in Analytical Psychology. New edn., London, I966; New York, I967. (Original: Zur analytischen Psychologie. Zurich, I952.) - - - . See also JuNG, Letters. AKSAKOW, A. N. Animismus und Spiritismus. Leipzig, 1894. Amitiiyur Dhyiina Siitra. Translated by F. Max Muller and Junjiro Takakusu. In: Buddhist M ahiiyiina Siitras, Part II. (Sacred Books of the East, 49·) Oxford, 1 894. AMMIANUS MARCELLINUS. History. Translated by John C. Rolfe. (Loeb Classical Library.) London and Cambridge, Mass., I 956. L'Annee psychologique (Paris), XIV ( I908). ANONYMous. Die Tyroler ekstatischen Jungfrauen. Leitsterne zn die dunklen Gebiete der Mystik. Regensburg, 1843· APULErus. The Golden Ass. Translated by W. Adlington, revised by S. Gaselee. (Loeb Classical Library.) London and Cambridge, Mass., 1915. AuGUSTINE, SAINT. Tractatus in Johannis Evangelium. In MIGNE. P.L., vol. 35·

BIBLIOGRAPHY AvALON, ARTHUR, pseud. (Sir John Woodroffe), ed. and trans. The Serpent Power, being the Sat-Cakra-Niriipana and Piidukii-Paiicaka. (Tantrik Texts.) London, 1919. 6th edn., Madras, 1958. BALLET, GILBERT. Swedenborg: Histoire d'un visionnaire au XVIII siecle. Paris, 1899. BAYNES, H. G. Germany Possessed. London, 1941.

---.Mythology of the Soul. London, 1940. BEIT, HEDWIG voN. Gegensatz und Erneuerung im Marchen. (Symbolik des Marchen, 2.) Bern and Munich, 1957; 2nd edn., rev., 1965.

- - - . Symbolik des Miirchens. Versuch einer Deutung. Bern, 1952. BENOIT, PIERRE. L'Atlantide. Paris, 1919. Trans. by M. C. Tongue and M. Ross: Atlantida. New York, 1920. BEROALDE DE VERVILLE, FRAN<fOIS (trans.). Le tableau des riches inventions . . . representees dans le Songe de Poliphile. Paris, r6oo. (Contains the "Recueil Steganographique.") See also CoLONNA; FIERZ-DAVID. BERTHELOT, MARCELLIN. Collection des anczens alchimistes grecs. Paris, 1887-88. 3 vols. BLANKE, FRITZ. Bruder Klaus von Fliie. Zurich, 1948. BLEULER, PAUL EuGEN. Die Psychoanalyse Freuds. Leipzig and Vienna, 1911. (Original: ]ahrbuch fur psychoanalytische und psychopathologische Forschungen, Il:2 (1910).) BouRGET, PAuL. L'Etape. Paris, 1902. BoussET, WILHELM. "Die Himmelsreise der Seele," Archiv fur Religionswissenschaft ( Tiibingen and Leipzig), IV ( 1go 1), 136-69.

British Medical Journal (London). Leading article, 9 Feb. 1952. BuBER, MARTIN. Eclipse of God: Studies in the Relation Between Religion and Philosophy. New York, 1952.

- - - . Die Er::.iihlungen der Chassidim. Zurich, I949· Translated by Olga Marx: Tales of the Hasidim. New York, 1947· ---."Religion und modernes Denken," Merkur, VI: 2 (Feb. 1952). Translated as "Religion and Modern Thought" in Eclipse of God, supra.

BIBLIOGRAPHY B UGH NER, LUDWIG. Kraft u nd Sto !J. Leipzig, I 87 r. BuDGE, E. A. WALLIS. Egyptian Literature. Vol. I: Legends of the Gods. (Books on Egypt and Chaldea, 32.) London, I9I2. CAPRON, E. W. Modern Spiritualism; Its Facts and Fanaticisms, Its Consistencies and Contradictions. New York and Boston, I 855. CAsSINI, JACQUES DoMINIQUE, COMTE DE THURY. Les Tables parlantes au point de vue de la physique genhale. Geneva, I855· CoDEx:

Oxford. Bodleian Library. MS. Bruce g6. (Codex Brucianus). CoLONNA, FRANCESCO. Hypnerotomachia Poliphili . . . . Venice, I499· For French translation, see BEROALDE DE VERVILLE; for English paraphrase, see FIERZ-DAVID. CoRBIN, HENRY. Creative Imagination zn the $ufism of Ibn J1rabz. Translated by Ralph Manheim. Princeton (Bollingen Series XCI) and London, I 969. CRoOKES, WILLIAM. "Notes of an Enquiry into the Phenomena called Spiritual, during the years I870-73,'' Quarterly Journal of Science London, XI (n.s., IV) ( I874). CuMONT, FRANZ. T extes et monuments figures relatifs aux mysteres de Mithra. Brussels, I894-99. 2 vols. CusTANCE, JoHN. Wisdom, Madness and Folly. New York and London, I95r. DAVIE, T. M. "Comments upon a Case of 'Periventricular Epilepsy,'" British Medical Journal (London), I I (Aug. I 7, I 935). DEMANT, VIGO AuGUSTE. The Religious Prospect. London, I94I. DESSOIR, MAx. Das Doppel-Ich. Leipzig, I89o. DIETERICH, ALBRECHT. Eine Mithrasliturgie. Leipzig, I903; 2nd edn., I9IO. Translated by G.S.R. Mead: A Mithraic Ritual. London and Benares, I 907. DoRN, GERARD. "Congeries Paracelsicae chemicae de transmutationibus metallorum," in: Theatrum chemicum, vol. I. Ursel, r6o2. DuNs ScoTus, JoANNES. Quaestiones Scoti super Universalibus Porphyrii . . . . Venice, I520. DussAUD, RENE. Notes du mythologie syrienne. Paris, 1903-5· 835

BIBLIOGRAPHY [EcKHART, :MEISTER.] [Works of] Meister Eckhart. Translated by C. de B. Evans. London, I924-52. 2 vols. ELIADE, ~1IRCEA. Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy. Translated by \\". R. Trask. Xew York (Bollingen Series LXXVI) and London, I 96+ [ELIEZER BE:\' HYRCA:\'Us.] Pirke de Rabbi Eliezer. Translated and edited by Gerald Friedlander. London and New York, I9I6. ELLE:\"BERGER. HE:\"RI F. The Discovery of the Unconscious. New York and London, I 970. Encyclopedia of Islam. Edited by M. Th. Houtsma et a!. Leiden and Leipzig, I9I3-34· Encyclopedia judaica. Edited by Jacob Klatzkin. Berlin, 1928-34·

EPIPHA:\'Jl"S. Panarium, sive Arcula (Contra Octoginta Haereses). In MrG:\"E, P.G., vol. 4 I, col. 173, to vol. 42, col. 852. EvA:\'S- \\"E:\"TZ, \\'. Y. The Tibetan Book of the Dead. London, 1927; 3rd edn., with commentary by C. G. Jung, I957· FrERZ-DAYID, LI:\"DA. The Dream of Poliphilo. Translated by Mary Hottinger. With a foreword by C. G. Jung. :New York (Bollingen Series XX\') and London, I9jO. FLAviUs JosEPHcs. The Jewish War. Translated by H. St.J. Thackeray. (Loeb Classical Library.) London and Cambridge, Mass., 1956. FocCART, P. F. Les Afysteres d'Eleusis. Paris, 1914· FRAXCE, A:\"ATOLE. Penguin Island. Translated by A. \\'. Evans. New York, rgog. - - - . The White Stone. Translated by C. E. Roche. (Works of Anatole France, Autograph Edition, 14.) New York, I924.

FRAZER. JA:\IES G. The Golden Bough. London, I9I I-Ij. I2 vols. FREr, GEBHARD. Probleme der Parapsychologie: Gesammelte Aufsiitze. Edited by A. Resch. ~Iunich, Ig6g. FRECD, SIG:\IC:\"D. Five Lectures on Psychoanalysis. In: Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works. translated under the editorship of James Strachey, I 1. London, I957· (Original: Cber Psychoanalyse, rgro.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY - - - . The Interpretation of Dreams. Standard Edition, 4, 5· London, I 953· (Original: Die Traumdeutung, r goo.)

- - - . "Notes upon a Case of Obsessional Neurosis." In: Standard Edition, IO. London, I 955· (Original: "Bemerkungen uber einen Fall von Zwangsneurose," I gog.) - - - . An Outline of Psycho-Analysis. In: Standard Edition, 23. London, I964. (Original: Abriss der Psychoanalyse, 1940.)

- - - and C. G. JuKG. The Freud/ Jung Letters. Edited by William McGuire. Translated by R.F.C. Hull and Ralph Manheim. Princeton (Bollingen Series XCIV) and London, I 974· FREUNDLICH, JAKOB. Article in Deutsches Archiv fur klinische Medizin (Berlin), 177:4 (I934). FROMM, ERICH. Psychoanalysis and Religion. (The Terry Lectures.) New Haven, I950. GAYOT DE PITAVAL, FRANS:OIS. Causes cC!ebres et interessantes avec les jugements qui les ant decides ( 1734-43). Paris, I 772-88. GILLI, GERTRUD. "C. G. Jung in seiner Handschrift," in Die kulturelle Bedeutung der komplexen Psychologie. (Festschrift for Jung's 6oth Birthday.) Berlin, I 935· GLAUBER, JoHANN RuDOLF. De Elia Artista. Amsterdam, I668. GLovER, EDWARD. Freud or Jung. London, I950. GNosrus, DoMINICUS. Hermetis Trismegisti Tractatus reus . . cum scholiis Dominici Gnosii. Leipzig, I6Io.

vere Au-

GocLENIUS, RonoLPHUS. Uranoscopiae, chiroscopiae, metoposcopiae et ophthalmoscopiae contemplatio. Frankfurt a.M., I6o8. GoRREs, joHAN JosEPH VON. Die christlz'che Mystik. Regensburg and Landshut, I836-42. 4 vols. - - - . Emanuel Swedenborg, sezne Visionen und sezn Verhaltnis zur Kirche. Speyer, I827.

GoETHE, JoHANN WoLFGANG \'0!\". Egmont. Leipzig, I788. For translation see: Dramatic Works of Goethe. Translated by Sir Walter Scott and revised by Henry G. Bohn. London, 1872. - - - . Faust, Part Two. Translated by Philip Wayne. (Penguin Classics.) Harmondsworth, I 959·

837

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JosEF. Individuation: A Study of the Depth Psychology of Carl Gustav Jung. Translated by Stanley Godman. London and New York, I955· (Original: Individuation: Die Tiefenpsychologie in Carl Gustav Jung. Munich, I949·)

GRE:KFELL, BER""ARD P., and ARTHUR S. HuNT ( eds. and trans.). Seu.· Sayings of Jesus and Fragment of a Lost Gospel from Oxyrhynchus. New York and London, I904. GnLLAl'ME DE DrGcLLE\'ILLE. Le Pelerinage de la vie humaine. Le Pelerinage de l'ame. Le Pelerinage de Jesus Christ. In: JosEPH DELACOTTE. Guillaume de Digulleville . . . Trois romans-poemes du XIP siecle. Paris, 1932. GcR~EY,

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\\'ILHELM, RICH.-\RD (trans. I. The I Ching or Book of Changes. Rendered into English by Cary F. Baynes. \\'ith a foreword by C. G. J ung. New York ( Bollingen Series XIX I and London, I 950; 3rd edn., Princeton and London, I967(trans.). The Secret of the Golden Flou·er. With a Commentary and :Yfemorial by C. G. Jung. Translated by Cary F. Baynes. London and New York, I93I; new edn., I962. (Original: Das Geheimnis der goldenen Bliite. Zurich, 1929.) WILLCOX, A. R. The Rock Art of South Africa. Johannesburg, 1963. \\"rTCt:TT, \\'. P. Catholic Thought and Modern Psychology. London,

I9-f3· ---.Return to Reality. London, 195-1-; New York, [?I956].

\\'oLFF, Toxr. ·'Einfi.ihrung in die Grundlagen der komplexen Psychologie." in: Die kulturelle Bedeutung der Komplexen Psychologie. Berlin. I935· Reprinted in Studien .:u C. G. Jungs Psychologie. Zurich, I 959· Zentralblatt fur Psychoanalyse. \\'iesbaden, I 9 I o- I g q.

INDEX

INDEX OF TITLES

The titles of articles in this volume are here listed alphabetically, with begining page number, except for reviews, abstracts, forewords, etc., which are readily located in the main index under the name of the subject author. Abstracts of the Psychological Works of Swiss Authors, 398 Adaptation, Individuation, Collectivity, 449 Address at the Presentation of the Jung Codex, 67r, 828 Address on the Occasion of the Founding of the C. G. Jung Institute, 4 7 I Alchemy and Psychology, 75I Analytical Psychology: Theory and Practice, I Answers to Questions on Freud, 438 Approaching the Unconscious, I83 Astrological Experiment, An, 494-

Foreword to the First Volume of Studies from the C. G. Jung Institute, 487 Future of Parapsychology, The, 5 I o Human N'ature Does N'ot Yield Easily to Idealistic Advice, 634 Hypothesis of the Collective L nconscious, The, 5 I 5 If Christ Walked the Earth Today, 638 Individuation and Collectivity, 452 Is There a Freudian Type of Poetry?, 765 Is There a True Bilingualism?, 789

Concept of Ambivalence, The, 443 Concerning Answer to Job, 662 Contributions to Symbolism, 446 Crime and the Soul, 343

J ung and Religious Belief, 702 Letters on Synchronicity, 502

Effect of Technology on the Human Psyche, The, 6I4

Man and His Symbols, r83 Marginalia on Contemporary Events, 591 Memorial to J. S., 757 Miraculous Fast of Brother Klaus, The, 66o Munich, A Radio Talk in, 553

Faust anJ Alchemy, 748 Foreword to a Catalogue on Alchemy, 747

On Dementia Praecox, 335 On the Discourses of the Buddha, 697

Definition of Demonism, The, 648 Depth Psychology, 4 77 Depth Psychology and Self-Knowledge, 8I I

sss

INDEX OF TITLES

On Flying Saucers, 626 On Hallucination, 46I On the Hungarian Uprising, 636 On Pictures in Psychiatric Diagnosis, 802 On the Psychoanalytic Treatment of Nervous Disorders, 430 On Psychodiagnostics, 63 7 On the Psychology of the Negro, 552 On Resurrection, 6g2 On the Rosarium Philosophorum, 797 On Spiritualistic Phenomena, 293 On the Tale of the Otter, 762 Preface to an Indian Journal of Psychotherapy, 801 Present Status of Applied Psychology, The, 333 Press Communique on Visiting the United States, 564 Psychology and National Problems, 5 66 Psychology and Spiritualism, 3 I 2

Question of Medical The, 347

Intervention,

Radio Talk in Munich, A, 553 Religion and Psychology: A Reply to Martin Buber, 663 Report on America, 55 I Return to the Simple Life, 582 Reviews of Psychiatric Literature, 3 74 Rules of Life, The, 625 Significance of Freud's Theory for Neurology and Psychiatry, The, 388 Symbolic Life, The, 265 Symbols and the Interpretation of Dreams, I83 Tavistock Lectures, The, I Techniques of Attitude Change Conducive to World Peace, 6o6 Two Letters on Psychoanalysis, 427 Why I Am Not a Catholic, 645

INDEX

A Aalders, C., 826n abaissement du niveau mental, 67, 74, 79, 222, 335; in schizophrenia, 35 r abdomen, crab as representation of, 92 Abegg, Lily: Ostasien denkt andcrs, ].'s foreword, 654-55 Abraham and Isaac, 688 .\braham Ibn Ezra, 675 .\braham, Karl, 398&n, 423&n, 485 absolution, 287; and cure, 273 Abyssinians, 46 active imagination, 6, I 6g, qo, J72, 530-3 I, 799, 8oo; archetypal motifs in, 653; and dream-series, I i.f. I 76 Adam, and Christ, 23 I, 280 Adam Kadmon, 280 Adamski, George: Flying Saucers Have Landed, 627n adaptation: in analysis, 450, 45 I; energetics of, 450; psychological, 44952 Adler, Alfred/ Adlerian, 6, 62, I 2426, I 28, 423&n, 5 I7, 534; confession, I26; on "guiding fictions," 48I; on masculine protest, 48I; on power-drive, 480; psychology I school of psychology, I25, I27, 423n, 480; theory, 6I; ed. (with Stekel), Zentralblatt fur Psychoanalyse, 425&n Adler, Gerhard, 4 74, 773; Entdeckung der Seele, I27n; J.'s foreword, 5 I7; Studies in Analytical Psycho[-

ogy, 4 7-4-n; ].'s foreword, 523, 524 adolescence, 233 adumbratio, 234 advice, idealistic, 634 Aerial Phenomena Research Organization (APRO), 626n, 632; Bulletin, 632 aesthetics, 341 affect(s), 23, 43; blocking of, 478; emotion as, 25; infectiousness of, 596; influence of, on psyche, 375; and intellectual feelings, distinguished, 375; and invasions, 32; James-Lange theory of, 25, 27 affectivity, 375 Africa, 46; "going native" in, I 48; ].'s journey to, 554-5 7, 623 .\frica, Central, IS Africa, East, Elgonyi tribe in, see Elgonyi Africa, South, rock-carvings in, 39n Agadir, Morocco, s66&n agnosia, 67 I, 672, 826 agnosticism, 734 agoraphobia, 365 Agrippa von :\ettesheim, Cornelius, 784 Aion, god, I2I, I22 aisc hrologia, I 2 I &n Aksakow, A. N.: Animismus und Spiritismus, 293n Albertus ~fagnus, 678; De mirabilis mundi, 511 alchemist(s)/alchemy, I20, I67, 280, 286, 546; art of, "requires the whole man,'' 6Ig; Byzantine, 2 I I;

INDEX

alchemist(s)/alchemy (cont.): and chemistry, .fO, 7-ti: Faust and, i-J-8-so; foreword by J. to a catalogue on, 7-t 7; German, 11; Gnosticism and, 65 2, 672; Greek, 751; J.'s rediscovery of, 21 1; Latin, 232, 678; natural philosophy of, 649; philosophical, philosophy of, 742; and pre-Christian rites, 270; and psychology, i.)I-.)3; psychology of, 678; spiritual di~cipline of, 707; symbolism of, i.f7, 751; trinitarian and quaternarian standpoints, 4 73; R. Wilhelm and, .f72 alcoholic ''cured by Jesus," 2.p, 272 Aldrich, Charles Roberts: The Primit i1·c .\1 in d and .\1 odcrn Civilization, ].'s foreword, s6J-63 Alexander the Great, 221, 222 Alexandria, 121 n Alexandros, 1o8, 109 Alfonso X, King of Castile: Cia vis sa jJien tiae, 799 Alfred the Great, King, 282 alienist; s), see psychiatrist ( s) Allah, as monad, 715 Allen by, Amy I.: "A Psychological Study of the Origins of Monotheism" (unpubl.), J.'s foreword, 6566o Allcndy, R., 765n altar, 23-t altruism, abnormal, 612 ambivalence, H3, H-IAmerica/Americans, 10, q, 96, 139, 149; commerce and industry in, 5 75; European immigrants in, 465; J.'s journey to, 2q, 551&n; Negro complex in, 551; primitive layer in, -±7· q8; self-control in, 552; sexual repression in, 551; spiritualism in. 293, 2()-f; university "psychologies,'' 127; unrest in, 275; woman pJtient, q 7; \\'Omen's colleges m. '-1-i :\merican Indians, 55211; Navaho sand-paintings and yaibichy dances, 51 6; Pueblo, 2-±7; - , and Father

Sun, 2{7, 274, 288; - , on thinking, ro; - , sand-paintings of, 123; South, 205 Amitayur Dhyana Sutra, 739 Ammianus Marcellinus, 296 amnesia, infantile, 258, 259 amplification, 83, 84 Anabaptists, 593 anaesthesia, cutaneous and sensory, 388 anal: complex, 433, 434; fantasy, 436 analysis: adaptation in, 450, 45 I; danger of, for analyst, 153; of pupil, 251; as quickened maturation, I 72; and return to a church, 285; training, 485 analyst ( s) : analysis of, qo; challenges to, 492; neurotic, I 49; not a superman, 2I7; O\m psychic problems of, 493; and patient, as partners, 493; patients' resistance to, 220; and patients' sexual fantasy about, I44; personality of, and transference, 143; projections into, I40, I6Ij provocation by, I5Ij as saviour, 165; "snake's eyes" of, I42 analytical psychology, 523, s63, 6o8, 814; see also depth psychology Anatomical Institute, 214 Andreae, Johann Valentin, 748 angels in hell, 229, 233 Angelus Silesius, 688, 739 anger, 26 Angola, 39n anima (J.'s concept), 72n, 189, Igo, 351, 484, 536; as archetype, of divine mothers, 73 1; -figure, in schizophrenic's painting, qg; motif, 545, 546; as personification: of collective unconscious, 89; of inferior functions, 8g; projection on to, 749 anima mundi, 591 animal ( s) : cloacal, 433, 434; in dream-series of eight-year-old girl, 229; in dreams, symbolize sympathetic system, 92, 95; emotional manifestations in, 234; founding, 233; and "intelligent" acts of com-

INDEX

pensation, 657; magnetism, 294, 295, 340; psyche in, 235; sense of smell in, 326; symbols of evangelists, I85; taboo to Church, 99 ANIMALS (separate species) : beetle, in dream, 94, 95 bull: ''father of the snake," 444; in Gilgamesh epos, I06, I07; m Mithras legend, 444 cat, Egyptian sculpture of, I42 catfish, 33n cockroach, 706 cow and calf, in dream, 556, 55 7 crab, represents abdomen, 92 crab-lizard, in dream, 82, 86, 87, 90-94 dog "Clever Hans," 377&n dove, sacred to Church, 99 dragon: in cave, I q, I20, I23; motif, 38, 9 I, 92; link with snake, I q, 232 fish: aeon of (astrology), 7 I 8; as historical symbol, 434, 827; Ichthys, Christ as, n5, I57; sacred, to early Church, 99 insects, symbiotic functions of, 234 lamb, sacred in early Church, 99 lion, 827; as libido symbol, 444 mastodon, in dream, 65n, 66, 9 I mice, in catatonic patient's fantasy, 433 monster: motif, 38; symbol of, I02 namazu, 33n oxen, in dream of Archelaos, 108 parrots, araras, 205 peacock, 827 platypus, 248 ram, and Isaac, 67 4 rats, in catatonic patient's fantasy, 433 ravens, two, 749 rhinoceros, with tick-birds, 39&n salamander, 33 scarab, 506 serpent/snake: -bite, cure for, in Egypt, I02, I03; biting phallus in stele of Priapus, 444; in cave, I I6-I8, I23; as Christ symbol,

444, 827; on cross as allegory of Christ, 722; in dream of Toledo cathedral, II2, II3; eyes of, and hero's eyes, 92; in Gilgamesh epic, I07; healing, I I6; as historical castration animal, 436; horned, 229, 232; as libido symbol, 4H; mercurialis, 232, 722; in paradise, 690, 709, 7I5, 722; primitives and, I25; python at Delphi, I 17; quadricornutus / represents 232; four-horned, cerebrospinal system, 91; rn schizophrenic's painting, qg; serpens oculatus, in vision of Ignatius Loyola, 683; Shakti as, I 2o; train's movement and, 82, 87; as winter symbol, I22 snail, shell of, as proof of existence of God, 59I uroboros, 522 wasp, 5I8 weaver bird, 535, 54 I whale, 38 worm, poisonous, in myth of Isis and Ra, I 02, I 03 yucca moth, 535 animism, 595 animus, 72n, 89, 484, 536; incubators, I4 7 L'Annee jJSychologique, 4o6n Anthropos, I22; Christ and, 743; as monad, 7 Is; and unconscious Godimage, 669 Antichrist, 685, 69 I antimony: truth as, 6I9; YHWH as, 690 antiquity: dreams in, I07, I I I, 236, 237; medicine in, I02 anxiety: equivalents of, 390; hysteria, 390; neurosis, 278, 279, 390; neurotic, and sexuality, 390, 39 I Aosta, I I5 aphasia, 376 apocatastasis, 23 I Apollo, I I7, I20 apperception, I 2, I 86, 3 70; fantastic, 3 7 I ; state of, 3 7 I

INDEX

apraxia. 383 .-\puleius: Goldo1 Ass. -J-H aqua gratiac. 705 aqua f'CTIIWI1CI1J. 270; and baptismal water. 59I arbor philosophica. and tree of Cross,

artifex, and lapis, 722&11 Artis auriferac, 75311; "Rosinus ad Sarratantam... Boo ascetics, and dreams of tern ptation,

65 6

59 1 arcane substance. 59 I .-\rchelaos. Roman gm·emor of Pales· tine>, 108. 109 archetvpe 1 s'. 37· 38, 236, 529. 5i-J-; as a priori forms of representation, -J-97· 657: autonomy of, 2H, 7-J-2; choice of. 6n, 678; of collectiYe unconscious. 46-1-; constellation of, 6j8. 67i; in dream symbolism, 227--1-3; emotional \-alue of, 26o; etymology of. 22811; existence of. denied. 259, 260; - . establishing, 673-78; fascination of. 238; as for· mal aspect of instinct. 533. 5-1- I; and Germany. 3 76; and history, I 63. I 6-J-; identification with, I 53, 5 78: as image. 706; - , and emo· tion. 25 7: and indiYiduation, -tB6; inherited instinctual patterns of be· ha\·iour. -tBJ. SIB, 5-J-I, 607, 6s7, 6sB; as inherited tendency to form mythological motifs, 228; not in· hcrited idea. 229 . .J- 70. -tBJ. 5 I B; initiati\·e of. 23B; inteiYention of. I6I; as liYing matter. 257; of IoYer in a remote land, 159: numinosity of. 23B. 259. z6o. 485. 5IB. 5-fi, 658: and organic illness. I 03, I 33, IJ-t: in practical experience, 25 7; and projectiun, 1-!1. lj2. I53· I.)6; specific energy of. 238; spontaneous acti\-ity of. -tBs; timelessnessjeter· nitY of. 695; unconscious, soB .-\reopagus. 1 12 .-\ristophanes: The Frogs. 1 17 .-\rnaldus de \'illanoYa. 797 art/artists: difficulty in thinking, 16g; galleries. 27-1-: inspiration and in· Yasion. 34. 35: modern, and neu· rosis, 766 .-\rtemidoros of Daldis. 237

Asia, Europe as peninsula of, 67 .-\sklepios, I 16 Assagioli, Roberto, 39B11 assimilation: and Gnosticism, 672, 826; of irrational ideas, 356; of lost contents, 259; phenomena of, 67I, 672. 677. B26-27; work of, 259 assoCiation s : categories/classifica· tion of, 7-1-: familial patterns of, -1-75: free. 82, 84, I87, I88, I90-g2, -J-78; method, 6 association experiments/tests, -t8-s6, Igl, 353· 406, -J-71, -1-82; and com· pi exes. sec complex 1 es) s.v.; and Freudian unconscious, 61; and hysterics, -J-1 o; participation in, 77; potentialities of. 475; respiration in, 63-65; and schizophrenia, 5-J-, 353; \'0\1-el sequences in. -1-o 1 .-\st the Shepherd. 339 .-\sta rte, 677 .-\sterios, Bishop. I 20, 12 111 astrology: ] ung's experiment, 494501; and statistics. -1-94; and synchronicity, -l-97· 50-J-, so6; unconscious, 1 79 ataxia-abasia, 3 71 atheism, 733, 73-l.-\thens, 92. I 18. I 20 .-\thos, Mount. 681 .-\tman/atman, 280, 6g-f. 828; Elijah as. 675 atom bomb. 6Ij, 666 atomic age. 736 Atonement, Day of, 688 .-\trides, curse of. 599 attention. oscillating, I g6 Attis cult, 554 attitude(si: change of, 6o8-Io, 6I3; mental and moral, 607, 6o8; of understanding. rational and irra· tiona!, 508

86o

INDEX

Augustine, St., ro, 37, 288; In Johannis Evang., ron, 288n Augustus, 108 austerity, optimism of, 584 Australians, primitive, 41, 282 Austria, 569 autoerotic insulation, 149 automatic wiring, 302, 304 automatisms, 244 autonomy, conscious, 74 Autopator, 653 autosuggestion, 302 Avalon, Arthur: The Serpent Power, 578n

B Baal, 677 Babinski, Joseph, 400 Babylon: Creation Myth, 105; Gilgamesh Epic, ro5&n, 106, ro7; - , Eabani in, 764; - , Enkidu in, 105-7; - , Humbaba in, ro6, I ro; rite of temple prostitution in, 159; '"whore of," patient's nickname, q6 Bacon, Roger, 678 Ballet, Gilbert: Swedenborg: Histoire d'un visionnaire au XV II I siecle, 299n Bannerjee, Samiran, 8or baptism: fontjpiscina, I 16, I J7, 158; - , benedictio fontis, 158, 270; as initiation, I I 6, I 56; as mysteria, I 15; symbolism of, 158; water in, and aqua permanens, 591 Bardo existence, 95 Barker, Mary, 3, 4 Barmen, Pomerania, 296 Barth, Karl, 739&n Basel: leprosery, 87; Societe de Psychologie, 3 Basil the Great, 709 Basilides (Gnostic), 727 Basilides of Alexandria, 663n Basler Nachrichten, 293n Baudouin, (Louis) Charles, 673n, 765n

Bavarian Board of Physicians, 307 Baynes, Cary F. (trans. into English) : The I Ching, or Book of Changes, 69n Baynes, Helton Godwin, r68, 623n; Analytical Psychology and the English Mind, J .'s foreword, 623-24; Germany Possessed, 623; Mythology of the Soul, 474, 6r3n, 623 Bechterew, \V. von: Psyche und Leben, J.'s review, 385 Becker, Th.: Einfuhrung in die Psychiatrie, J.'s review, 386 Beit, Hedwig von (H. von Roques), 474; Gegensatz und Erneuerung im Marchen, 474n; Symbolik des Marchens, 474n belief, and illusion, 2.p Belilios, A. D., 287 belly, thinking thoughts in, 1o Bender, Hans, +94n Bendit, L. J., 3+ Benedictines, and psychotherapy, 269 benedictio font is, I 58, 270 Bennet, E. A., 3, 31, 176, I 79 Benoit, Pierre, 545; L'Atlantide, 201 Bergson, Henri, 12 r Berkeley, George, 772 Berlin, 58 Bern Winter Meeting of Swiss Psychiatrists, 1910, 443n Bernese Alps, 170 Berneuchener movement, m Germany, 285&n Beroalde de Verville, see under Colonna Berthelot, Marcellin: Collections des anciens alchimistes grecs, 753n Bertine, Eleanor: Human Relationships, J.'s foreword, 534-36 Bethlehem, massacre of innocents, 274 Betty, medium, see White, Betty bewitchings, 328 Beyond, the, 3 I 5 Bezzola, Dum eng: "Zur Analyse psychotraumatischer Symptome," J.'s abstract, 398

INDEX BIBLE:

Old Testament: Daniel, 109; Kings, First Book of, 673; Kings, Second Book of, 673, 675; Zacharia~ 677n 1'\ew Testament: Acts of the Apostles, 23 I; Corinthians, First Epistle to, 23 I, 67 I, 6g2, 6g3n, 758, 826; Hebrews, 705; John, Gospel of, 67gn, 686, 6g3; Luke, 648, 6g3, 7I6; ~{ark, 648, 673, 6g2; Matthew, Gospel of, 28on; Philippians, 7I8n; Revelation, Book of/Apocalypse, 232, 685, 686, 688&n, 7I8, 727, 742; Thessalonians, First Epistle to, 6g8 ApocryphajPseudepigrapha: Acts of John, 735; James, M. R.: The Apocryphal New Testament, 735n Bibliotheca chemica curiosa, ed. Manget, 753n bilingualism, 789 Binet, Alfred, 34 I; ed., L' A nnee psychologique, 406n Binswanger, Ludwig, 423&n; "Uber das Verhalten des psychogalvanischen Phanomens beim Assoziations-experiment," 41 r biography, psychological, 4 7r Bion, Wilfred R., 29, 65, 66 birth-chamber: baptismal font as, I58; Egyptian, I57 bladder disturbances, 374 Blanke, Fritz: Bruder Klaus von Flue, 66on; J.'s letter to, 66on Bleikeller, in Bremen, 2 I 4 Bleuler, (Paul) Eugen, 3 I 4, 334, 375&nn, 392n, 48I; co-director of Jahrbuch, 392n; on depth psychology, 4i7; unpublished paper on ambivalence. 443n; Aflektivitiit, Suggestibilitiit, Paranoia, J.'s abstract, 399-400; -, J.'s review, 375-76; ''Bewusstsein und Assoziation," J.'s abstract, 408, 409; "Freudsche Mechanismen in der

Symptomatologie von Psychosen," 399; and J., "Komplexe und Krankheitsursache bei Dementia praecox," J.'s abstract, 399; Die Psychoanalyse Freuds, 429; "Sexuelle Abnormitaten der Kinder," J.'s abstract, 400; ''Uber die Bedeutung von Assoziationsversuchen," J. 's abstract, 406-7 blindness: hysterical, 298; of St. Paul, 298 "blond beast," I63 body: evolution of embryonic, 258; and mind, relation between, 33, 34, 65; as personification of shadow of ego, 23 Boegner, M., 685 Boehme, Jacob, 5I6, 732-39 Bollingen, J.'s "Tower" at, 798n Bolshevism, 7 I 5 Bolte, Richard: "Assoziationsversuche als diagnostiches Hilfsmittel," J.'s abstract, 400 bomb(s): atom, 6I5, 666; hydrogen, 260, 54 r, 630, 734; stratospheric, 6o3 Boniface VIII, Pope, 99 bonitas Dei, 732, 733 Borobudur, I 78 Bosch, Hieronymus, 530 Boss, Medard, 34 7&n, 348 Bourget, Paul: L'Etape, 88 Bousset, Wilhelm: "Die Himmelreise der Seele," 676 bowl (s) : golden, in dream of Toledo cathedral, II2, II3, II8, I2I, I66; in schizophrenic patient's picture, 176 brain: anatomy, 376; at birth, 4r; meaning of, 350; mythology, 464; wave (Einfall), 46I Braunau, 575 breaking lines, I 77 Bremen, 214 Brethren of the Free Spirit, 678 Breuer, Josef, I87, 388, 5I5; on hysterical symptoms, 4 78

INDEX

Brill, Abraham A., 423&n British and American Society for Psychical Research, 3 I 7 British Anthropological Society, 68 British Broadcasting Corporation, 744 British Medical Journal, 65, 664 British Museum, 67, I2I British Union of Fascists ("Blackshirts"), 5 75n Broglie, Louis Victor de, 33, 34n Bronze Age, 39 brooding, 8I5, 8I6 brother and sister, hierosgamos of, 748 Brother Klaus/Nicholas von der Fliie, 99&n; fast of, 66o-6I; vision of, 683 Browne, Leonard F., 96 Brunner, Cornelia: "Die Anima als Schicksalsproblem des Mannes," J.'s foreword, 543-4 7 Bruno de Jesus-Marie, Pere, J. 's letter to, 673-78; ed. Elie le prophete, 673n Bruns, L.: Die Hysterie im Kindesalter, J.'s review, 374-75 Brunton, Charles, 94 Bubastis, I 2 I Buber, Martin, 68I; Die Erziihlungen der Chassidim, 675; "Religion und modernes Denken," 663n; J.'s reply, 663-70; Tales of the Hasidim, 675n Buchman, Frank, 739 Buchner, Ludwig: Kraft und Stoff, 6o3&n Buddha, I 78, I 8 I, 3 I I; Pali Canon, 697n, 739 Buddhahood, attainment of, 650 Buddhism/Buddhists, 246, 26I, 262, 667, 697-99, 703; Mahayana, 739; - , mandala, 7 I 7; and suffering, 697; Zen, koans in, 234 Budge, E. A. Wallis: Egyptian Literature, I03n Bulletin or Korrespondenzblatt der internationalen psychoanalytischen V ereinigung, 423n

Bumke, Oswald: Landliiufige lrrtumer in der Beurteilung von Geisteskranken, J.'s review, 383 Burckhardt, Jacob, 780 Burgholzli Mental Hospital, Zurich, 353n, 36I n Burgundy, Duke of, 87 Byzantine alchemy, 2 I I

c Caesar, as god, r6s, s8r, 694, 695 Cahen ( Cahen-Salabelle), Roland, ed. and trans., J.'s essays in L'homme a la decouverte de son ame, 3, 58g&n Cairo, tombs of Khalifs in, 3 I 5 Camps, P. W. L., I30 Canaanite deities, 677 cancer/carcinoma, 321; phobia, 206, 242 candle, plunged into font, 158 Capron, E. W.: Modern Spiritualism, Its Facts and Fanaticisms, 293n catÂˇdiac disorder, 35 7 Carmel: Elijah and, 674, 675, 677, 678; pagan sanctuary on, 674 Carus, c. G., 439, 515, 560, 77I, 775 Cassini, Jacques Dominique, comte de Thury, 296 ("Professor Thury") Castalia, Fountain of, I I 6, I r 7 Castel, William, 297 castration: complex, see complex s.v.; motif, 434, 436; - , teleological significance, 436; as numinous mutilation, 348; as treatment for transvestism, 347, 348 catalepsy: crimes committed in state of, 345; hypnoid, 325; psychology of, 4I8, 4I9 catastrophe, 3 r6 catatonia: akinetic motility psychosis, 378, 382; cerebral localizations, 382; consciousness of, 3 7 I; and hypnotic states, 377 cathartic method, 378, 398, 402 cathedrals, Gothic, I r 4; see also Chartres; Toledo

INDEX

Catherine of Alexandria, St., 781 Catholic Church, 246, 263; and analysis, 27 r; benedictio fontis, 158, 270; and cure, 273; and dogma of infallibility, 283; and Holy Spirit, 68o; marriage rite in, 15 7; and meaningful life, 2 75; quaternity in, 7 I 2, 7 I 4; and sexuality, 7ÂˇJ:2i and spiritualism, 294; as therapeutic institution, I 62 Catholicism: J.'s reasons for not joining, 645-.p; and truth, 646 Catholics, 246; less subject to neurosis, 267, 269; as patients, I62 causality, 499, sao; law of, 64 7; relativeness of, 68; Western concept of, 6s5 Caux, see ~1oral Re-Armament Movement cave: descent into, 38, I 13, I 20; dragon in, 117, 120, 123; serpent in, I 16-I8, I23 Cecrops, 92, r I8 centre: of consciousness, see ego s.v.; non-ego, I67, I73, 178 cerebrospinal system, serpent as, 9 I cerebrum, origin of, 9 chakra, 5 78; manipura, see manipura Chalewsky, Fanny: "Heilung eines hysterischen Bellens durch Psychoanalyse," 400 Charcot, Jean ~1artin, 370, 374 charisma, faith as, 6o3, 646 Chartres cathedral, I 15, I I6 child ( ren) : and archetypal images, 232; born in the East, qs; and collectiw unconscious, 95; criminal, 96; drawings by, 5 I 6; dreams of, 40, 229, 362, 363, 368; - , archetypal, 95; ethereal, 95; -god, 688; parents make neuroses of, I 33, 358, 485; -substitution, 658; unconscious in, I 30 childhood: early, unconscious, 8, IO; memories about, I99i and neurosis in later life, 420; sexuality in, 8o6 childishness, \\'estern, 245 Children's Crusades, 593

China/Chinese, 45, 46, 69, I48, I 62; Book of Wisdom, I 3 I; literature, 68; loss of old culture, 743; mind, 69; philosophy, I Ig, 5I6, 553 chirology, 820 Chladni, Ernst Florens Friedrich, 307&n choreic affections, hysterical, 3 74 Christ/Jesus, 638; as archetype, 730, 731, 737; astrological assimilation of, 673; beyond good and evil, 720, 72 I; as brother, 28o; in childhood, 682; as complexio oppositorum, 722, 731, 737; crucifixion of, 688, 734; death of, 444; and devil/Satan, 682, 687, 689; - , as opposites, 689; and Elijah, 673, 674, 677; evil and, 723; executed with criminals, 97, 684; and figtree, 646; as Fish/lchthys, I I5, I 57, 673; and healing the sick, 699; as Holy Spirit, 686, 687, 68g; imitatio Christi, 123, 68g; as innocent victim, 7 I 8, 74 I; as lightbringer, 67I, 826; and myth of God-man, 24 7; name of, not to be mentioned, I I.)j opposites contained in, 73 I; passion of, in alchemy, and arcane substance, 591; and projections, 6gs, 730; the Redeemer, 97, 23 I; and Redeemer archetype, 743; resurrection of, 59 I, 692--96; as rider on white horse, 577; sacrifice of, 275, 276; sayings of, I22, 619; self as, 722, 725, 731-33, 737, 738; sources for, 732; as totality, I23i and tree, 239; and unjust steward, 727; and virgin birth, 717, 718; within, 280 Christian: dogma, truth of, 288; and unconscious, 262 Christianity, 703; and development of consciousness, 672; devitalization of, 736; dualism of, 689, 6go; and end of the world, 246; esoteric meaning of, 267, 28o; expansion of, 607; Hitler and, 5 76; impotence of, 593&n; philosophy,

INDEX

6gg; problem of, I27; and psychic change, 6o2; and Roman Imperium, 5 76; and technological progress, 584 Christian Science, 34 r Christmas tree, 235, 239 Christocentrism, 689 Church: Catholic, see Catholic Church; fanatical sects in, I 5{; and fear of God, 683; and mass education, 603 church ( es), robbed of magical images, 27-t Church of England: Holy Communion in, 28I; a real church, 28r Churches, Free, 283 Church Fathers, 726; Greek, 23 I circle: magic, I 23, q8, qg; symbol of, 5I5; as symbol of "all-round'' man, 280 circulus quadratus, 5 77 circumambulatio, I 78, I 79 circumcision, 674 cistern, in dream, I I2, I I3, I I9 city: as synonym for self, I 22; walk round circumference, I 78 civilization, 208 Civitas Dei, 5 7-t clairvoyance, 295, 2g6, 304, 306 ClapJ.re:de, Edouard: ''Classification et plan des methodes psychologiques," .f2In; .. Quelques mots sur Ia definition de I'hysterie, .. -12on; J. 's abstract, 400 Clausura, 272 Clavis sapientiae, 799 Clement of Rome, 682 clergy, as directeur de conscience, 284 Cockin, F. A., 7-t4n Code Napoleon, 273 Codices and MSS: Bezae, 6Ig, 72on, 727; Jung Codex (Evangelium Veritatis), 671&n, 826-28, Lucca: Hildegard of Bingen, 5 I 6; Oxford: Bodleian Library, Bruce g6 (Codex Brucianus), I 22&n cognitio sui ipsius, 73 2

cogmtwn, 27, I86; mystic powers of, 3o6; mythological stage of, 435; theory of, 6o collectivity: Christian, 683; individuation and, -152-54 Colonna, Francesco: Hypnerotomachia Poliphili, 474> 545, 759&n, 76o&n, ;8o; trans. Beroalde de \' erville, Le Tableau des riches in~路entions, contammg Recueil st(ganographique, 76on, 78o; see c.lso Fierz-David, Linda colour, as oscillations, 9 Communism, 573, 57-t, 579, 58o, 735; an archaic pattern of life, 5-t I Communist use of language, 203 Communistic state, as substitute for God, 6g.f, 6gs community: and divine experience, 72.); indi\路idual and, s85-88, 739 comparati\路e method, see method s.l'. compensation: archetypal, 520; Elijah as, 6;;; feminine, 520; goal of, -!75 complementarity, 路172 complex(es), I88, 5I5; in association experiments, 7 I, 353; autonomous, 73, 238, 532, 533; castration, 57, 58, 6I; among Catholics, 268, 26g; consciousness of, 73, 7-t; -constellation type, 407; in demonism, 6-t8; dreams and, 72, 82, I go, I g 1; ego as, see ego s.v.; father, 278, 279; feeling-toned, 376, 388, 482; as fragmentary personalities, 72, 73; incest, 58, 8-t, I 26; -indicators, 482; inferiority, q{, 221, 222; among Jews, 268; money, {9; personal, 238; personification of, 72; power, I 25-2 7; among Protestants, 268; psychic functional, and their executive org.ms, 383; psychology, j62; of representations, 388; saviour, Ij2-jj, I6I; social, 238; split-off, I 68; theory, -t82; tormenting, H-t complexio ojJjwsitorum: Christ as, 722, 73I, 737; God/Deity as, 682,

86 5

INDEX

complexio oppositorum (cont.): 725, 726, 737; Holy Spirit as, 689; star of David as, 7 I 6 compulsion neurosis, I 28-30 conation, 27, 7 I 2 concentration camp, 599&n, 6o2; see also Maidenek conceptio immaculata, see Mary concretism, 6g3; bolshevistic, 695 confession, religious, 223, 269, 27 I; analytical psychology and, 8 I 6; public, 2.}2 confessionalism, 645 conflict, and neurosis, 283, 284 coniunctio oppositorum, 7I9 conscience: exploration of, 244; and neurosis, 61 6 conscious mind: lopsidedness of, I90i in mania, 35 I; narrowness of, 9, 3 I 6; onesideness of, 3 I 6 consciousness: alterations of, 302; beginning of, 133; and the "Beyond," 3I5i clouding of, 305; collective, of our time, 6; dawn of, 95; definition of, I I; development of, I93, 658; -, in Buddhism, 699; differentiation of, I56; dimming of, 328; dissociability of, I97i dissociation of, I 94, 62 I; eclipse of, 32, I97i ectopsychic contents of, 36; ego and, see ego s.v.; emancipation of, 733; emptiness of, 37Ii evolution of, 522; exclusive belief in, 243; experimental state of, I94i extension of, 259, 3 I 6; and feeling, Io; fringe of, 2I, 205, 209, 223; functions and, see function (s) s.v.; an intermittent phenomenon, 8; invasion of, by strange contents, 355; localization (s) of, 9, I I, 5 78; and loss of numinous symbols, 254, 255; lowered threshold of, 35 I; not the whole psyche, 262, 340; onesidedness of, 62 I; and physical world, 8, g; in primitives, IO, 3I6; psyche and, I93, 262, 340, 5 I9i psychology of, 7; reflective, origin of, 236; restricted/narrow, 9; subjective, en-

tanglement in, 262; as surface or skin, 8; and unconscious, see unconscious and consciousness; and union with "Orthos," gi6; unity of, 72, I95i value of, 316; Western, 245 consensus: gentium, 276; omnium, 247 contagion, mental, 26, 75, 138 contamination through mutual unconsciousness, I 4 I, I 49 contradictio in adiecto, 7 I4 conversion, and hysterical symptom, 43I Coptic Museum (Cairo), 826n Coptic treatise (Codex Brucianus), 122 Corbin, Henry: Creative Imagination in the Sufism of Ibn 'Arabi, 545n Correspondenz-Blatt fiir Schweizer Arzte, 374n Cosmopolitan, 638n Cox, David: J.'s letters/answers to, 7I9-44i Jung and St. Paul, 702n Cramer, A.: Gerichtliche Psychiatrie, J.'s review, 386 creatio continua, 72 I creation: cruel aspect of, 732; of world, myth of, 231 creed, as symbolum, 719 Cretan monuments, 185 Crichton-Miller, Hugh, I, I 34, I 35; Hugh Crichton-Miller, 1877-1959, J.'s foreword, 639-41 crime, inner urge to, 344 criminal ( s) : children, 96; dual personality of, 343; soul of, 345; use of association tests, 49, 5 I, 63 criticism, higher, 740, 74I Croix de Feu, 575n Crookes, Sir William, 299, 301, 306, 307, 3I4i "Notes of an Enquiry into the Phenomena called Spiritual, during the years I87o-73," 30on; Quarterly Journal of Science, 299 cross: of Christ, 683; four arms of, I 23; of functions, 1 7; and swastika,

866

INDEX

analogy, 576; as symbol, 244-45, 25 7; tree of, and arbor philosophica, 59 I; as union of opposites, 735; see also crucifixion Crottet, Robert: Mondwald, J.'s foreword, 782-83 crowd, emotion in, I 38 crucifixion: of thieves, with Christ, 97; on wheel, 38-39; see also cross crypt, I I 5, I I 6 cryptomnesia, I 5, 200, 20 I cut de Paris, 57 I culture: contemporary, pathological nature of, 658; essence of, 583; Freud's theory of, 479 Cumont, Franz: Textes et monuments, 676 cura animarumjcare of souls, 246 curses, Christianity and, 646 Cusanus, Nicholas, 682, 725 Custance, John: Wisdom, Madness, and Folly, 667; J.'s foreword, 349-352 Cybele cult, 554 Cyrillic script, I 88

D dagger, in dream of Toledo cathedral, II2-I3, n8, I2I, I66 daimonia, psychic, 664 damnation, eternity of, 6go, 693, 727 Dana, Martha, 6g2n dances, yaibichy, of Navaho, 5I6 Dante and Beatrice, 545n Darshana, 265 Darwin, Charles, 2 I 3 Davenport brothers, mediums, 299 Davie, T. M., 133; "Comments upon a Case of 'Periventricular Epilepsy'," 6sn dead, return of, 328 Dead Sea, I o8 death: fear of, Io7; as goal, 757; philosophy and, 3 IS; preparation for, 234Âˇ 3 IS; spectre of, 246;

symbolic, as salvation, 735; unknown approach of, 234 Deesse Raison, 26I deities, see god(s) Delphi, I I 7; oracle at, 239 delusional ideas: and archetypal motifs, 652; understanding of, 65I delusions, and mythological motifs, 354 Demant, V. A., 704; The Religious Prospect, 704-n dementia praecox, see schizophrenia Demeter, I20, I2In demiurge, Gnostic, 622 democracy, 572-74. 580, 6g5 Democritus, pseudo, 270, 75 I demon ( s) : autochthonous, 59 I; metaphorical, 666; possession by, 593; psychic powers embodied in, s87, 593, 594, 599, 6o I demonism, 648; of nature, 593 demotivation, 370 Deo concedente, 722 depression, 32 depth psychology, 6I6, 8I I-I3, 8I8; J.'s encyclopedia article on, 477-86 descensus ad inferos, 38 descent, double, 658 Dessoir, Max, 34I; Das Doppel-Ich, 34!1! determination, principle of, 430 deus absconditus, 678, 68o, 682 "deus ultionum," 684 De vas, angel (Sanskrit) /devil (Persian), 444 devil/Satan, 68o; Christ and, see Christ s.v.; eternity of, 6go; as fourth member of quaternity, 7I 2, 732; as left hand of God, 682; as son of God, 687, 68g, 690, 709, 7Io; - , bene Elohim, 7I6 Dharma, 261 diagnosis, and paintings of patients, I8I dialectical discussion with unconscious, 664, 667 diaphragm, seat of psychic activity, IO

INDEX

Dicks, Henry \'., 26, I68 dictator (ship), 3 I 8. 580, 58 I Dieterich, Albrecht, 42; Eine Jfithrasliturgie, 42n differentiation, 62 I Diocletian, I I 6 Dionysus, I I7, I2In directeur de conscience, 269, 28-tdiscontinuity. princi pie of, jOf, 505 diseases, as disturbed normal processes, 6 disorientation, worldwide, 254dissociability of psyche, I 95, 664 dissociation, 309; between conscious and unconscious, 6o7; of consciousness, I 94-, 62 I; in hysteria, I oo; of modern mind, 2.f3; neurotic, I 67, 209. 6o8, 69o; in schizophrenia, see schizophrenia s.v.; worldwide, 254divination, experiments in, 296 divining rod, 295, 296, 302 divorce rate, 582 doctor: and faith, 66g; and incurable disease, 697; intuition in, I6; as saviour, 577; as sorcerer, 577 dogmas: as spiritual structures, 668; truth of, 2 7 I Dam, Gerard, 232n, 676n, 65 r; ''De transmutatione metallorum" m Tlzeatrum clzemicum, 676 Dost, Max: Kurur Abriss der Psy-

chologic, Psychiatric und gerichtliclzen Psychiatric, J.'s review, 384 drama, and rebirth motif, 525 dream(s), 68; affects in, 364-65; of Africans, 55 7, 629; analyst's, of patient, q.}, q6, anticipatory, 15, 237; in antiquity, I07, I 12, 236; archetypal, of children, see child( ren) s.v. dreams; archetypal contents of, 104, 227-43, 259; ''big," 8j, I I I, I93, 484, 556; -books, Arabic, 556; censorship in, 366, 367; of children, see child(ren) s.~·.; on collective le\·el, r I I; compensating function, I IO, 207, 220, 227, 233, 6o8, 656, 657; and complexes, see complex(es) s.v.; com-

868

position, 366; condensation in, 364, 368; and context, I IO, 2I3, 6o8; of convenience, 363; and creative process, 787; and diagnosis of physical disorder, 65&11, 66 (see also be laze organic); displacement in, 365, 368; and distortion, 84-86; -elements, 364-66; fa~ade, 366; fear in, 367, 368; feelings in, 364; Freud on, 36 I-68; functional meaning of, I87; of Germans, collective, 57 3; in girl, with progressive muscular atrophy, 66; God speaks through, 262 (see also below sent by God) ; as guardian of sleep, 222, 363, 367, 368; historical, I Io; -images, I87, Igi, 204, 206, 222, 228, 363, 366; - , context of, 2 I 3, 220, 22 7; and immortality, 288; instigator, 365; is its own interpretation, 83, 248, language of, 203-15, 227, 279, 285; and language of nature, 255; latent and manifest content, 362-65, 368; in later stages of analyses, ro4; localized ''down below," r I; meaning of, 657; -motifs, 207, 2ro, 231; mythological, r r r; of Negroes, 37, 38, 40; new thoughts in, rg8; and "nothing but" explanation, rg2; obsessive, 2 27; organic representations in, 66 (see also above and diagnosis); of personal exaltation, 224; picture-language of, 204; precatastrophal, 4 75; of primitives, see primitive (s) u·.; and prognostication of the future, 236, 237; and recollection of prehistoric world, 258; recurrent, 210, 2I r, 227; religious meaning of, 700, 70 r; replaced by objectivation of images, I 72; repression in, 366, 367; scene changes in, go; and selfregulating psychic system, r ro; "sent by God" jsomnia a Deo missa, 193, 263, 286 (see also above God speaks through); -series, 40, 78, r 74-76, 229, 236; sexual allu-

INDEX

laos', of oxen eating ears of wheat, 108; Gla phyra 's, of murdered husband. 1o8-10g; Xebuchadnezzar's, of he11·n tree. I og; Roman senator's daughter's, of l\Iinerva, I I I; Sophocles', of Herakles' vessel, I I I, I I 2; cistern beneath Toledo cathedral, with set·pent guarding golden bowl, II2-Ij. rq-rg, 121, I22, 123, r66; J. ·s, of de\·alued patient as woman in castle tO\I·er, I 46; custom-house at frontier (three dreams), I .JO; ~lr X tries to jump on dreamer's back : ].'s mm dream), 20-t; prejudiced and stubborn woman is invitd into a co\\·shed, 207; stepping off a mountain into the air, 207; disco\·ery of wing or guest house containing old library (J.'s own dream), 21 I; A house with historical layers with prehistoric tomb beneath the lowest ( J. 's own dream), 2IJ-I.); man with exalted opinion of himself dreams of drunken tramps, 221; intelligent woman's dream of dishonest intriguer as "sister'' or shadow, 22 I; the leading horseman clears a ditch and his companions fall in (dreamt by t\\·o separate patients, one young, one old:. 225; eight-year old girl's series of "uncanny" dreams, 229-34, 239; related by Artemidorus of Daldis, of man who dreamt his father died in flames, 237; patient's dream that ill doctor perished in a great fire, 237; J. as size of a god, in cornfield, holding patient in his arms, 278; J.'s dream of pretty girl with father complex, 278; dreamer (J. himself) is a small man 1\·ith a beard, with no glasses, and is no longer young, -!43; African chiefs dream of cow and calf, ss6, 55 7; eagle circling 0\·er concentration camp, 67 7n; dying man's, of his Ol\·n sarcophagus, 758

sions m, 249; significance of, I 8s95; as source of natural symbols, 2 I 7; -statement, manifest. 190; as statements about the unconscious, 3I3; subliminal, 2IO, 222, 223; symbols/symbolism in, 40, I 86, Igo, 223, 248, 653; symbol-producing function of, 257: teleological explanation of, 368; telepathic, 656; theories of, 36I; -thought, 364, 367, 6s6; in transference, q8; two aspects of, 259; uni\·ersal language in, 111; waking, 367; wish-, 363, 367; wish-fulfilment theory, 188, .pg; -work, 362, 365, 366 dream-analysis/interpretation, 6, 40, 77-96, 8q, 815; and archetypal image, 102; before Freud, Igo; and causal-reductive method, 4 78; complexes in, 73; as confrontation of two minds, 21 7; and feelings, 364, 365; incompetent application of, 2 10; and individuality of dreamer, 250; interpretation of one's own dreams, 109; intricacies of, 7; and intuitive attitude, 547; and mutual dream of interpreter and dreamer, 251; and self-awareness of interpreter, 250; and types problem, 2I6--t3 dreams: instances (in order of appearance in the text) : :'\egro 's, of man crucified on wheel, 38; lubricating machinery, and drainage of pond, with mastodon, 65n, 66; patient wearing black coat, in small Swiss ,-illage, \l·ith former classmates, 79; dreamer is late for a conference, and misses his train looking for his portfolio-the train is derailed, 79-8 I; a peasant woman is told of a great walk planned-a mo:Istrous crab-lizard appears and is killed, 86ff; a rolling wheel which burns (s-year-old's dream), 94; beetle that pine hes I jyear-old's dream), 94, 95; Arc he-

86g

INDEX

Dreyfus, - , M.D., 385 Dromard, G.; ··De Ia dissociation de Ia mimique chez les alienes," 42 rn drugs, 598 Druses, 67.}, 678 dualism: and Christianity, 709, 73 I; ~lanichaean, 726 Dubois, Paul, 2I4, 43In; Die Einbildung als Krankheitsursache, J.'s review, 380 Duce, the ( ~fussolini), I 65 Dudu and Suleika (Nietzsche), s-t6&n Duke Cniversity, 3 I 3 Dumas, G.: "Qu'est-ce que Ia psycho Iogie pathologique?," 42 rn Duns Scotus, Johannes: Super unzversalibus Porphyrii, 9n duree creatrice (Bergson), I2I Diirr, - , Prof., 333 Dussaud, Rene: Xotes du mythologie syrienne, 676n duty, conflict of, 620 dyad, Persian deity as, 7I5

E East/Eastern/Oriental, I 73; aim of detachment, I 66; European's fear of, 530; and Golden Age, 245; mandala in, I23, 178; mind, 69, 233; philosophy(-ies), 6g, 95, 232; religions, 2I3, 232; symbolism, 67; - , of greeting, 2o; therapy, I03i thinking, 68; white man in, I45i \\-ill to power of, 2H East and \\'est: mind of, 68-6g; psychology of, 654, 6ss Easter, I s8; coloured eggs at, 235 Eberschweiler, A.: '·Cntersuchungen iiber die sprachliche Komponente der Assoziation," J.'s abstract, 40I echolalia, 3 77 Eckhart, Meister, 280, 6oo; Works, trans. C. de B. Evans, 6oon eclecticism, 669 ecstasy, 304

Ecstatic Virgins of the Tyrol, The j Die Tyroler ekstatischen Jungfrauen . . . (anon.), 295&n ectoplasm, 66o ectopsyche, I 2, 43 educated man as leader of the people, 603 education: Christian, 6o2&n; for fuller consciousness, 6os Edwards, H. M., 287 ego: is centre of consciousness, 1 I; is a complex, I I; -complex, 43, 45, 72, 73; -consciousness, 62 I; - , in demonism, 648; consciousness and, 8, I I; constituents of, I I; and cross of functions, q; dark side of, 22; in Freud's theory, 480; -personality, 202; realization of, 8; shadowworld of, 23; and unconscious, IS96o, 664 egocentricity and meditation, 8 I 7 egotism, 6I 2 Egypt/Egyptians, I 09; cat sculpture, I42i Christianity in, 6g4n; Essene sect in, 108; Horus, see Horus; Isis mysteries in, see Isis s.v.; and snake-bite, treatment for, I02, I03i symbolism, I73i temples, IS7 Ehrenfels, Christian von: Grundbegriffe der Ethik, J.'s review, 383; Sexualethik, J.'s review, 384 Eid, Albert, Estate, 826n Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule, see Zurich s.v. Einfall, IS, 172 Einstein, Albert, 67, 499n Electra complex, 535 electrocardiogram experiments, 29n electrons, 34n El-Elyon, 677 Eleusinian mysteries, 239, 2 70 Eleusis, I 20 Elgonyi tribe, East Africa, 240, 554; and dreams, I92, 286; and se/e/teni (ghosts), 3 I 8; sun worship of, 240 Eliade, Mircea, 253, 529; Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy, 253n

INDEX

Elijah: in alchemy, 676&n; as angel, 674, 675; ascension of, 676; and Elisha, 673, 674; as "hairy" man, 673; as mythical/archetypal figure, 673-78; two souls of, 674; walking on water, 673 Elimelekh of Lizhensk: "Elijah," 675n Ellenberger, Henri F.: The Discovery of the Unconscious, 374n, 427n Ellis, Havelock, 380 Emmerich, Katherina, 295 emotion ( s), 23-2 6; contagious, I 38 (see also contagion); and feeling, differentiated, 26, 27, 29, 2rg; Ossianic, 294; overwhelming, r38; of patients, I4o; and symbol, 249 empiricism, 463; J.'s, 666-68; and philosophy, no, 771 enantiodromia, 71 r Encyclopedia H ebraica, 751 n Encyclopedia of Islam, 676 Encyclopedia Judaica, 675 endogamy, 486 endopsyche, I2, 43 energetics of adaptation, 450 energic conception of psyche, 3 I 4 energic tension, 222 energy: emotional, of numinous phenomena, 254; and opposites, 727; and psyche, relation, 385; psychic, 459; specific, of functions, I 6 engineers, and philosophy, 6I 5 England, I3, I4, 4I, 49, I30, r6r, r85; theosophy in, 554 England, Canon H., 281, 283 Enkidu, see Babylon s.v. Gilgamesh Epic Enlightenment, 595 Ennemoser, Joseph, 34o&n Enoch: and Elijah, 675; and Ilyas, 676 Epidaurus, I I 6 epidemic, psychic/mental, 46, 290, 48s, sgo, 604, 6s9; demonism as, 648; and insanity, 6o7 epilepsy: prodromal symptoms of,

95; as repression of criminal instinct, 34+ Epiphanius, St., 714; Panarium, 653n Eranos-Jahrbuch, 285n Eranos lectures/Tagung, 67n, 529 Erec htheus, I I 8 Eschenmayer, Karl August, 34o&n Eschle, Franz C. R.: Grundziige der Psychiatric, J.'s review, 379-80 Eskimos, Polar, 286 Essenes, 1 o8 E.T.H., see Zurich s.v. Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule ethic ( s) : differentiation of, 62o; "new," 6rg, 622; "old," 6r8-zo ethical problem, 6r 7, 6r8; and psychology, 6I6, 617 etymology ( -ies): archetype, 228n; "invent," 239 Europe: history of, 8r; a peninsula of Asia, 67 Evangelium Veritatis, see Codices and MSS: J ung Codex Evans, Elida: The Problem of the Nervous Child, J.'s foreword, 8os-6 Evans-Wentz, W. Y.: The Tibetan Book of the Dead, 95n Eve, "hidden in the body," r8g evil: as non-existence, 709, 726; as positive factor, 708 Exercitia S piritualia, see Ignatius Loyola existence, criterion of, 703 existentialism, 34 7 exogamy of our culture, 486 expiation for guilt of individuation, 45I, 453 extra ecclesiam, 276; nulla salus, 284 extra-sensory perception (ESP) : experiments, 504; phenomena and archetypes, 500 extraversion, 483, 534; types, 2 r 7 Ezekiel, vision of, r 85, 205

F fairytales, 38, I r I, 230, 649, 657; J.'s foreword to 'The Tale of the Otter," 762-64

r::-."DEX

faith. 683: charisma of. 6-t6: and consolation. b<:,S: kno\dedge by. 668: and projection. ~23. ~30: and thought. 25-t bmih· -ies : murder. 386: research into. ~+: romance. 48o fanaticism. 15+· 6oo hntaS\· -ies : and acti\·e imagination. differentiated. 1 ~ 1: creatiYe. 212: locJ.lized ··dmm below:· 11: posi tiw aspect of. 52; Fascism. n3-J:. r65. 5~4· 5:-9- 58o fasting of Brother Klaus. 66o. 661 Lne. dreJ.ms and. 65; fa the~: co:-nple.x. -''' complex es doctor as. j";"";": fixation. 2/";"; -imJ.ge. and group formations. 5 ;o: -.projection of. rs<:.-60. 27/· 577: -transference. 100. 2";"~ FJ.ther: of .-\11. 2j.): ··de\·oid of consc]ol.ls:less·· in Gnosticisn1 . 653; paradoxic 3.] nJ.ture of. 688, 6go; S1~n. ~4~- 1~-i·

:!S.S _;,-, Goethe Fechne:r. Theodor. -t:-~ .. fedeli d"amore.·· j~.J F ede:-31 Polnechnic. ;;; Zurich s.:. Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule feeling s : 3...'1d affe :ts. 26. 2I 9: emotion .:L"ld. -''' e:11otion .<.: .: functio:::. 12-:~. :6-:~. +3· -t8. 8S: -. of e\·ab:nion \·alue. 2). 30. 219: -.rational. 20. 210: le-sion of. 3.57: ry;:e. :8. :26. I 30-.;o: . . \·a1ues. :3- I~ feeli.'lg-tone d . 13: and idea. 6oS feeling-toned con;p]ex. r:J. 405. -!- 71: :rq~ess.ed. 3SS. 482 F~:...<:.

Fen:i."':ine. Eternal. ro6 fe:-:::i:ine ps\·d:.olo0·. 8oS fe~2i:ry cf :~e eJ.nh. 120-21 ficl::e. J. H .. --, Fie:-z.. Ju:-g. 6:6.-; Le:-z.. ~L:.:r:;.·..:s: J.'s .e:te:-s to. on ' .. sy::cn:--or.Jc:ty. 502-7 Fi.o:-z-D.:.\'id, Lir.d::.: T~< Dr,·r;p; of

Poliphilo, +7+· j-t.Jn, 76on; J.'s fore\\·ord. 75911. 78o-8r filioque clause, 68; filius macrocosmi, 722, 7+2 filius philosophorum, 722 fire and Kater. i.11 star of David, ;r6 Flam marion. Camille. 3 q Flinker. ~fanin. ~89'1; Almanac, 78gn Flournoy. Theodore. .f/I, 5Ij; .. Automatisme teleologique antisuicide:· 42o: Des Indes Ia Planhc .\Jars, J.'s abstract, 401; ··:\ om·elles obserntions sur un cas de somn3.mbu1isme a\·ec glossolalie ... ]."s abstract. 401 flm,·er s . j9I: blue, //j Fludd. Robert. polemics Kith Kepler, +73 flying saucers. su Cfos Folia nl'uro-biol ogica. 42o&n fo•1ction du rt'd_. so' Janet fordham. Frieda: Introduction to .Tung's Ps_ichology. ]."s fore\\·ord.

-t89~0

F ordhan1. ~fichael. 506: ]."s letter to. on S\TlChronicitY. jOS~: S<u: De: dof''lCnts i'l Analytical Psycholog;. ]."s fore\,·ord, 491~3 ForeL .\ugust e Henri. 341&n. 38;&n: Ethische und ruhtliche Kcnfiiktc in: So:ual/eben in- und a:.~.<suhalb d;r Eh;. ]."s reYieK, 38i forgetting. definition of. r 98 Fomer-:\ietzsche. Elizabeth. 20 I Foucart. P. F.: L:s .\!~sterts d"Eleu525.

121n

four: comers. in child's dream, 229, 232: dimensions. 28. j8-jg Fox fam:J\·. HydeS\l.lle :\eK York . 2~3

France French. j2. 579: and GermanY Germans. ..; 6. 4;, -t8; language. 17. 2:0: psychologists. 9, 12. 138. 143 F ranee. .-\natol.o. 39.;: P<nguin Isla-r:d. 33--r:. -8:: Tht White Stone

INDEX

Francis of Assisi, St., 99 Franco, Francisco, sB I &n Frank, Ludwig: "Zur Psychoanalyse," ].'s abstract, 402-3 Frankfurt a. M., Saalburg near, I I 7 Franz, Marie-Louise von, I 83, 4 74&n, 825n Frazer, Sir James G.: The Golden Bough, 56I, 562 Frederick the Great, clock of, 2I r free association, see association ( s) s.v. freedom, 580, 58 I; as emotion, 31 O, 31I Freeman, John, I83 Frei, Gebhard, 475; Probleme der Parapsychologie: Gesammelte A.ufsatze, 475n Freia, 4H frequency, 3 I 4, 3 I 5 Freud, Sigmund, 6, 132, Igg, 337, 342, 354路 380, 381, 392, 471, 5I7, 534, 773; and Adler, 125-26, I27; on ambivalence in language, 443; J. 's answers to questions on, 43840; on archaic remnants, 206. 22 7, 535; biological point of view, 440; on castration complex, 61; causalreductive method of, 48 I; and c:mses of psychosis, 38 I; on censor, 222, 366, 367, 4 79, 48o; on counter transference, I4o; credulity of. 440; on death-instinct, 4 79; on determination, 430; on dream-interpretation, 84, 85, I87, 377; on egoideal, 48o; on ego-instinct, 4 79; on hysteria, 369, 372, 375, 38r, 388; on Id, 6I, 62, I28, I3I, 480; on incest-wish, 91; and instincts, 658; on introverted type, 218; and Jung: analysis of J ung's dream, 2 I 3- I 5; - , collaboration, I 25, 354; - , loss of friendship, 2 q; - , disagreement, I 25, 483; on Leonardo da Vinci, 658; materialism of, 440; and memories, 258; negative, reductive attitude of, 479; neurosis theory of, 425, 652; and "nothing but" explanation, 277, 479; and ob-

jective side, r6o; on obsessional neurosis, 388; on Oedipus complex, 535, 658; one-sidedness of his views, 438; on pleasure principle, 4 79; on pre-conscious, 57; on primitive mind. 562; and psychoanalysis, 4 78; psychology, r 26; and religion. 635; on repression, I 88, 4 78, 4 79; scientific materialism of, 4 79; sectarianism of, 523; and sex, exclusive interest, 2I5; and shadow, 828; static view of, 62; on subconscious, 377; on super-ego, 4-8o; three-dimensional, 59; totem and taboo theory, 440; on transference, I 3 6, q I, I 5 r, 544; on unconscious, IO, 6I, 62. I24, I27, I28, 263, 5I5 WORKS: '"Five Lectures on Psychoanalysis,'' .p8n; ''Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of Hysteria," 382n; The Freud/lung Letters, see Jung: \\"ORKS; The Interjnetation of Dreams, 3.14路 36rn; '?\'otes upon a Case of Obsessional Neurosis,'' 433n; '路On Dreams," 36rn; J.'s report, 361-68; '"An Outline of Psychoanalysis," 535n; preface to StekeL Xcn路ose A.ngstzustande und ihre Be handlung, 39on; (with Breuer) Studies on Hysteria, 3 78&n, 430; "Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality," 382n; Totem and Taboo, 562; Cber Psychoanalyse, 428; Zur Psychopathologic des Alltagslebens, J.'s review, 381-82 Freudlicher, - , 29 Freundlich, Jakob: Deutsches A.rchiv fur klinische .\1 edizin, 2gn Frey-Rohn, Liliane, 495 Fribourg, Bishop of, 270 Frobenius, Leo, 4 76 Froboese-Thiele, Felicia: Triiumeeine Quelle religioser Erfah rung, J. 's foreword, 700-70 I Fromm, Erich, 634n, 702, 703; Psychoanalysis and Religion, 702n Fuhrer, see Hitler function ( s) : collective, 453; con-

INDEX

function(s) (cont.): scious, subjective components of, 22; in consciousness, I2, 36; cross of, q; differentiated, 35 I; ectopsychic, I2; endopsychic, 2I, 22, 37; four, 28, 43, 57, 97-g8, I22, 483, 7I2; inferior, Ig-2I, 98, 732; psychological, I6; rational, 13; of religious symbols, 244-52; subjective components of, 43; thinking, I2q, I6, I7, 43, 2Ig; -types, four, 2I9, 47I, 534 Furst, Emma: "Statistische Untersuchungen tiber Wortassoziationen," J.'s abstract, 410-11 Furth, first German railway to, 3o8n future: historic, 28 I; unconscious concern with, 236

G Game, Margaret, 3, 4 Ganser's symptom, 4I5, 4I6 gas, poison, s67 Gaul, I08 Gayot de Pitaval, Franc;ois, 397&n Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan) 747 Gemutlichkeit, 48 genitals, suspension by, 445, 446 George, St., 676 Germany/German(s), 48, I6I, I64, s69, S74, S96, S97. 6oo; and collective guilt, 7IS; France and, see France s.v.; inferiority complex of, 6o4, 6os, 6o7; language, I4, IS, 30, 87, I36, q6; national character of, 603; Nazis in, see Nazism; philosophy, 62; and prejudice, 24I; primitivity of, 254; psychology, see psychology s.v.; sentimentality of, 47, IS2i southern, I2Ij S.S. in, S80, 60 I j and triadic mandalas, 715; see also N a tiona! Socialism Gerry, Peggy, 6g2n Gerster, Georg, 626n ghosts, 319, 328; explanation of, 326; primitive fear of, 3 I 8, 3 I g; sel-

elteni, Elgonyi and, 318; stories, 3I8, 3I9, 326--28; as symbol, 328 Gilbert, J. Allen, 767n; "The Curse of Intellect" (unpublished), J.'s preface, 767 Gilgamesh, see Babylon s.v. Gilgamesh Epic Gilli, Gertrud: Der dunkle Bruder, J.'s foreword, 776--78; ''C. G. Jung in seiner Handschrift," 776n Glaphyra, IOO-IOI Glauber, Johann: De Elia Artista, 676 Glover, A.S.B., s89n, 673n, 679n Glover, Edward: Freud or fung, 706 gnosis, 730; of empirical method, 669 Gnosius, Dominicus: Hermetis Trismegisti Tractatus vere Aureus de Lapide philosophici secreta, I89n Gnosticism, 280, 62I, 6si-53, 663; and assimilation, 672, 827; and collective unconscious, 652, 664; and evil, 727; father in, "devoid of consciousness," 653; and Holy Ghost as feminine, 99; in John's Gospel, 6s2, 686, 727; Jung considered as, 663, 664, 666, 727, 728, 730; morality, 720; "philosophoumena" of, 668; psychological significance of, 67 I, 826--28; and shadow (of Christ), cut off, 716, 722 Goclenius, Rodolphus: U ranosco piae, chiroscopiae, metoposcopiae, 82o&n God: as Begetter, I s6; belief in, Jung's own, 706; child of, 279; compensating, 678; as complexio oppositorum, see complexio oppositorum; devil and, see devil s.v.; evil principle in, 709, 7IO, 7I2, 7I3, 723; fear of, 206, 279; feminine counterpart, 733; and Godhead, 71s; help of the lonely, 286; incarnation of, 687; metaphysical, 668; of Old and New Testaments, 679, 68o, 729; the one who made the sun (St. Augustine), I o, 288; pneuma of, 68g; self as, 62 I; speaks

INDEX

through dreams and vtswns, 262, 263; as summum bonum, 688, 726, 733, 736, 737; a symbol of symbols, 283; is terrible, 289; two aspects/ambivalence/paradox of, 682-84, 686, 688, 690, 691, 709, 710, 740, 741; two sons of, 689; as unknown primal cause, 646; will of, 7 I9, 720, 724, 725, 73 7 god(s): dying, 239; - , and resurrected, 694; psychopompic, I22; of Spring, sacrifice of, 446; sun-, I 2 r; turned into philosophical ideas, 3 I 6; unconscious need for, 278 god-almightiness, 728 Godet, E., see Jung: WORKS s.v. Phenomenes occultes godfather and godmother, r 56, 15 7 Godhead, priest in, 274 God-image, 706; amoral, 743; archaic, I 55; archetypal, 659, 667, 743; as autonomous psychic content, 666; evolution of, 741; in man, 690; as symbol of the self, 659; two sides of, 682; in the unconscious, 669 Godlikeness, 646 god-man, 238, 239, 24 7; Christ as, 6g3, 6g5; disappearance of, into unconscious, 26 I Goerwitz, E. F., see under Kant, I. Goethe, J. W. von, 30; Egmont, Klarchen's song, 446n; Faust, 24I, 3I8, 546, 587n; -,Aegean festival, 748, 749; - , and alchemy, 74850; - , axiom of Maria in, 749; - , Mephistopheles, 748, 749 gold, I I8 Goldbrunner, Josef, 707, 708; Individuation, 707 Golden Age, 245; good and evil, 620, 689, 708, 709, 7 I 6, 73 I; beyond good and evil, 73 I; - , Christ as, see Christ; in quaternity, 717; relative, 7I7, 733 good and ousia, identification, 709

goodness, an individual acquisition, 6oi Gorres, Johan Joseph von, 294; Die christliche Mystik, 294; Emanuel Swedenborg, seine Visionen und sein Verhiiltnis zur Kirche, 294 gospel, everlasting/ evangelium aeternum, 688&n "Gospel of Truth" (Gnostic), 67 I, 826 Graham, Billy, 638n Grail, Holy, 678, 742, 798; and spear, II8, I20 graphology, 77 Gray, Sidney, 3 Great War, 46, 69, r63 Greece/Greek: essence and spirit of, 239; gods, 248; language, 82; medicine in, I03i mythology, 40, 1 r8, 4 72; philosophy, 2 I 4 greed: egotism and, 61 2 Grenfell, Bernard P., and Arthur S. Hunt: New Sayings of Jesus and Fragment of a Lost Gospel, I 22n Grimm brothers (Jacob, Wilhelm) : Fairy Tales, I 03 Groddeck, Georg, 480 group ( s) : formations, 5 70, 57 I; and psychotherapeutic method, 6og, 610 Guild of Pastoral Psychology (London), 265 Guillaume de Digulleville, 99; Pelerinage de !'arne de Jesus Christ, 99 guilt, in individuation, 45 I, 453 Gurney, Edmund, F.W.H. Myers, and Frank Pod more: Phantasms of the Living, 296 H

Hades, I09 Hadfield, J. A., I, 25, 36, 169 Haggard, H. Rider: anima motif in, 545, 546; She, 20I, 545, 546 Hall, G. Stanley, I 72 hallucinations, 298, 389, 46I; hypnagogic, 325; olfactory, 32I, 326; verbal, 3 I 2; see also voices

INDEX

Haloa festival, I 2 In Hamelin, Pied Piper of, 593 hands, and character, 820 Hans, Clever, 3 77&n Harding, M. Esther, 474; Psychic Energy, ].'s foreword, 469-70; The Way of All Women, 474n; - , J.'s foreword, 807-10; Woman's Mysteries, 474n; -, J.'s foreword, 5I820 Harling, Ann, 283 Harrison, Jane E.: Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, I 2 In Harten berg, P.: ''Principe d'une physiognomie scientifique, '' 42 w Hartmann, Eduard von, 62, 439, 56o, 771; on "divine Absolute," 477, 5I5 Harvard Psychological Clinic, 269n Harvard University, 564&n Hasidic, 279, 675 Hastings, James: Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, 648 Hauffe, Friederike, clairvoyante of Prevorst, 294, 295 haunted house, 320-26, 328 Havet, J., 6o6n head, abstract existence of, 3 I o healing the "split," 253-64 heart: and memory, 3 I o; thinking in, IO

hebephrenic fantasies, 389 Hecate, I22 Hegel, G.W.F., 5I5, 772 Helena, and Simon Magus, 545 Helios, and Elias/Elijah, 674 hellebore, lapis as, 722 Hellpach, \\'illy: Grundlinien einer Psychologic der Hysterie, J.'s review, 369-73 Helsdingen, R. J. van: "Beelden uit het onbewuste," J. 's foreword, 530, 53 I Helvetius: "\'itulus au reus," m .:\1usaeum hermeticum, 676 Hendy, B. D., 33 Hephaestus, 749

Heraclitus, on enantiodromia, 7 I I Herakles, I I 2 heresy, 669 heretics, religious geniuses as, 684 Hermann, - : "Gefiihlsbetonte Komplexe in Seelenleben des Kindes, im Alltagsleben und im Wahnsinn," J. 's abstract, 403 Hermas: The Shepherd, I I5, I I6 Hermes Trismegistus: as ldris, 676; Tractatus aureus, 286 Hermetic philosophy, 232, 672, 690, 75I, 828 hero: as archetype, 232; and conquest of death, 694; -dragon conflict, IOS, I I I, 23I, 238; and dual mother motif, 658; identical \\Âˇith dragon, 92; identification with, 238; motif, 38, 9I, 92; myth, I02, 238 Herod the Great, 777 Herodotus, I 2 I &n Herrnhuter Briidergemeinde, 68 In hetaira, transformation into, 674, 677 Heyer, Gustav R., 5 I 7, 773; The Organism of the .Wind, I27n; Der Organismus der Seele, 794; -, J.'s review, 793; Praktische Seelenheilkunde, J.'s review, 794-g6 Heyer, Lucy, 796 hierosgamos: I20, I2In; of Homunculus and Galatea, 749; of Spiritus Sanctus and baptismal water, I58 Hilarius, 296 Hildegard of Bingen: Codex Lucca, 5 I 6; visions of, 5 I 6 Hillman, James, ed.: Studies in Jungian Thought, 487n Himalayas, I53 Hindu(-ism), 97, I85, 667; lingam, 249, 250; literature, 67, 68; psychology, I I Hippolytus, 730, 827; Elenchos, 653n, 67I, 827 Hitler, Adolf/the Fuhrer, 544, 5 76, 578, 595, 596, 6o2, 6o4, 6os; as hysteric, sg6, 6o4; as incarnation,

INDEX

575; like Mohammed, 281; and j1seudologia phantastica, 6o4-; psychological effect of, 607 Hi tlerism, 16-t Hitschmann, Eduard: Freuds 1\'eurosenlehre, J.'s review, 422 Hoare, Sir Samuel, later \'iscount Tem plewood, 5 76&n Hoche, Alfred E., 386; Handbuch der gerichtlichen Psychiatric, 386n Hoffman, Michael L., 438&n Hoffmann, Ernst Theodor \\"ilhelm: "The Golden Pot," 327&n, 525&n Holy Communion, 273, 28I as 679-gi; Ghost/Spirit, Holy Christ's father, see Christ s.lÂˇ.; as complexio oppositorum, 68g; as feminine, in Gnosticism, gg; identification with, 735; invocation of, 681; as psychic t>xperience, 69o; as revolutionary, 685; as transcendental fact, 682; two aspects of, 685; and union of opposites, 689, 6gi Holy Roman Empire, 576 Home, Mr., spiritualistic medium, 299Âˇ 300 Homeric age, IO homo interior, Christ as, 695 homo sapiens, 215 homosexuality and law in Germany, 382 Honegger, Johann Jakob, 426&n Hopkins. W., 28g, 290 Horst, Georg Conrad, 34o&n Horton, - , 68o, 685, 686 Horus, 185; four sons of, 717. 732 Hosea, 685, 720, 724 Hottentots, I s8 Howe, Eric Graham, 27. 28, s8-6o, 62 Hubert, Henri, and :M. 1\lauss: .Helanges d'histoire des religions, 38&n Hull, R.F.C., r83, 449n human mind, medical approach to, 354

humanities and psychology of neuroses, 35 7 Humbaba, see Babylon s.v. Gilgamesh Epic Hume, David, 772 Hungarian uprising, 636 Hunt, Arthur S., see under Grenfell, B. P. Huxley, Aldous, 638n hydrogen bomb, see bomb ( s) hygiene, psychic, 310 Hyious tau anthrojwujSon of Man, 828 Hyliaster, see Paracelsus hypnosis, 295, 303, 379; movement, 377; and rapport, 143, 144; and suggestion method, 699 hypnotic: methods of treatment, 215, 3 78; sleep, 3 79 hypnotism, 339, 34-0, 5 I 5; forensic significance of, 3 78; forms and techniques of, 377; mass, 601 hypothesis, fulfilment/living of, 280, 281 hysteria, s8; aetiology, 374; anaesthesia in, 388; and association tests, 353; in childhood, 374; complex in, 41 o; differential diagnosis, 3 74; dissociation in, 100; among mediums, 302; a ''metaphysical problem," -t65; psychic symptoms in, 374; psychogenesis, 374, 388; psychology of, 369; riddle of, 369; root phenomena of, 3 72; sexual trauma theory, -t 78; sociological and historical aspects, 372; theory, 370; treatment for, 375 hysterical: anaesthesia, I 87; choreic affections, 3 74-; disturbance of sensation, 3 71; hyperaesthesias, 3 7 I; intellect, 371; pain, 27; painapraxia, 371; paralysis, 37I, 374; psychogenesis of symptom, 388, 478 hysterics: analysis of, 430, 431; and lies, 197; spontaneous phenomena m, 303

INDEX

I Iamblichus: Vita Pythagorica, 674 Ibsen, Henrik: Lady from the Sea, '59

I Ching, trans. \\'ilhelm/Baynes, 6gn lchthys/fish, Christ as, see Christ icons, 181 "Id," see Freud s.u. idea ( s) : association of, 354; as entity, 309; flight of, 351; as golden vessels, 3 10; mythological, essentially real, 309; as phenomenon, 309; symbolic, 248, 249; unconscious, 303; universal, 309-1 1 identity, psychic, 194&n, 205 idols, reason for, 181 ldris, 676 Ignatius Loyola: Exercitia S piritualia, 681, 686, 707&n; vision of serpens oculatus, 683 image(s): parental, 156, '57. rsg; primordial, 39, 228 imagination: active, see active imagination; a priori categories of, 38; pathological effects of, 380

Imago: Zeitschrift fur Anwendung der Psychoanalyse auf die Geisteswissenschaften, 425n imitatio Christi, see Christ/Jesus s.v. imitation, 452, 453 ''imitative illnesses," 377 immortality, 288, 309, 3 1o; magic herb of, 107; psychology of belief in, 309; and realization of self, 694; of soul, 319 imps, complexes as, 532 incarnation, 66g; further, 734; incompleteness of, 729, 734; and individuation, 71 g; as integration of unconscious, 736 incest: complex, see complex s.v.; among Hottentots, 158; wish, 91, 94 India, 45, 68; castes in, 15 7; and loss of old culture, 743; performance of rites in, 273; see also Hindu (-ism) Indian Journal of Psychotherapy, J.'s foreword, 8or

individual: change to goodness in, 6o 1, 6o2; collectivization of, 21 6; and group formation, 571; need for change in, 261 individuality, 453, 493 individuation, 123, 166, 351, 618, 675, 69o, 701, 705; and adaptation, 451, 452; and collectivity, 45 2-54; a dialectical process, 665; drive to, sos; guilt in, 45'Âˇ 452; inescapable, 72 7; interpretation of symbols in, 259; as life in God, 71 g; and problem of opposites, 493; as salvation/redemption, 736; union of conscious and unconscious in, 622 lndomalaysia, 530 lndra, 443 infans mercurialis, 591 infection, moral and mental, 245 inflation, 5 73; psychotherapist and, '54

influx divinus, 735 initiation ( S) : and baptism, I I 6, I 56; doctrines taught at, 233, 234; rites, 1 57 insanity, 337, 350, 379; see also psychosis; schizophrenia insight, scientific, 544 insomnia, J.'s own, 322, 323 instinct ( s) : animal, 234; atrophy of, 659; language of, 209; loss of, 6s8; lost contact with consciousness, 244 Institute of Medical Psychology (The Tavistock Clinic), J.'s lectures to, 3, 566n insulation, autoerotic, 149 integration: ethical aspect of, 621; of personality, 617; of unconscious contents, 6o6, 613, 618 intellect: incapable of understanding ritual, 271; murderous, 279; and neurosis, 284 intellectual ( s), 3 28; rationalist, 262 intelligence testing, 384 intercessio: divino, 15 7; sacerdotis, '57

INDEX

International Congress for Psychiatry, Amsterdam, I907, J.'s report, 404-5 International Journal of Parapsychology, 5IO International Psychoanalytic Association, 423&n, 6o6n interpretation, and emotional value, z6o introjection, 725 introspection, 24 I introversion, 38, 2 I 7, 483, 534; in dementia praecox, 417, 4I8 intuition, I4-I 6, 43, 56; as fourth dimension, 28; and interpretation of symbols, 25 I; irrational, 2 19; and nose, link, 326, 327; as perception, 15, 2I9; in physics, 251; subliminal, 326 intuitive type, I 9 invasion(s), 43; and affects, 32, 33; and artistic inspiration, 34; as endopsychic factor, 24 invent, etymology of, 239 inventions, and mythological anticipations, 39 invisibles, 3I2, 314-I6 ions/ionization, and mediums, 66o Irenaeus, 7 I 6; Adversus haereses) 7 I 6n Irminger, H., 645n Iron Curtain, 244-45 Ishtar, in Gilgamesh Epic, 106-7 Isis: cult, 554; as feminine intercession, 734; mysteries, I 2 r; and Ra, 102, 103n Islam, 6o7, 667; and Elijah (Ilyas), 675; and Elijah (Khidr/al-Khadir), see Khidr; new, 281 Isserlin, Max: "Die diagnostische Bedeutung der Assoziationversuche," 403 Italy, I 6I, 569; conquest of Ethiopia, 5 76n; tiled roofs, I I 8 Ixion, 40, 95

J J. S., J. 's memorial to, 757 Jacob, in fight with angel, 705

Jacob, St., lazar-house ( leprosery), and battle of I 444, 87, 9 I, I 02 Jacobi, J olande, 455, 4 74, 6o6n, 8I w; Complex/ Archetype/Symbol, 96n, 229n, 474n; - , J.'s foreword, 532-33; Pa.racelsus: Selected Writings, J.'s foreword, 784, 785; The Psychology of C. G. Jung, 455, 474n, 6I3n; - , J.'s foreword, 46768 Jaffe, Aniela, 327, 825n; Apparitions and Precognition, 327&n; - , J.'s foreword, 327-29; "Bilder und Symbole aus E.T.A. Hoffmanns Marchen Der Goldene Topf," 327n, 52s&n J ahrbuch fur psychoanalytische und psychopathologische Forschungen (ed. Jung), I25n, I 29, 392&n, 398n, 436, 55In James, William, 25&n, 205, 209; on unconscious psyche, 4 77; Varieties of Religious Experience, 5 77 James-Lange theory of affect, 25, 33 Janet, Pierre, 67, 74, I87, 222, 244, 34I, 388, 439. 47I, 477. 5I5, 773; fonction du reel, I 2, 520; On '"idees fixes," 4 77; on obsessions, 4 77; on "partie superieure" and "partie inferieure" of a function, 477; "Le renversement d'orientation ou I 'allochirie des representations," 42 I Japanese: and earthquakes, 33&n; Government, 69 Java, I 45, I 78 Jena, 287 Jerusalem, I07 Jesuit(s): and psychotherapy, 269, 287; theologian, 729, 740 Jews, 162, 246, 665; complexes in, see complexes s.v.; and consultation of rabbi for psychological troubles, 268; in Germany, 573, 6oo, 6os; and tradition of Elias, 23 I; see also Judaism Joachim of Flora, 678, 688&n Joan of Arc, Maid of Orleans, 299

IXDEX

Jc'b. 6Sc'.

~-p:

sculpture of cat. illustrating projection of feminine image.-qi--t2 -~y LadY forced to come to consultation by transference.-q3 -J(f Girl of 2-t. bom in Ja,·a. Before her three attempts to start anah·sis she had three dreams of a customs house at the frontier. J ung·s 0\\11 dream of her in cas tie rower showed his misplaced de,·aluation of her sister of Case 30 . q.)- -t6. 1.)0 . .)3 !1! ll .-\meric:m ,,·oman analyst threatened by her patient "·ith a reYolwr. unable to accept her feeling;; as a woman.-qj · L:" Young artist who had diffinzJry in using actiw imagination.-I&:;-/1 ·u- Lni,·ersit,- scientist who dr:mk and ,,-J.s lonely: he recorded his O\\TI dream-series illustrating archen·pal symbolism.17J-;6 . .:!8j&nn. 338. 540 1-t \\-oman in stupor. who remembered ewnts under hyp-

Gt'd Yah"eh of. 66o. and indiYidua-

~18. ~1~1. ~~I. ~-±~:

tion. -;18 John the B.1ptist. St.. 108. 6;3 John Chryst'stom. 6~-t&n John the h·:mgelist. St. ... Gnostic·· gospel of. 652. 686 Jonah. and '' h.1le. 59~- 6~ -t Jones. Ernest. 399•:. -t85 J c'rd:m. P.1scual. -t ~ 3 Josephus. Fl:l\ius. 10~. -;-;-;: De bdlo J:•daic,J Tht' J<:ci_;h Jrar. IOjTl, t\'~-t'l- ;;";"! Judaism: God in. -;o_>: medie\·al. and h.abbala. 6~ ~- 8.:?8: -''' also Je,,-, Jud.ls t'f G.1lilee. -;~-;. ;-;8: death of.

Jcsc.

C-\RL

C\SES

I:-;

Gt-sTAY: SC'II:'IfARY

fr<.<t"•l:atic"l. rt-_ft.-r(1l(t.-

zn orda of

n u m bt·r<d

for

1 \\-idow with hyster-ia. \nongly diagnosed as sarcomatosis of the spinal cord.-sS -2- ~Ian aged -tO suffering frorn n·nigl'. with dream-series.~8-82. 86--9-t- <j6 T Girl of I o with mythological dreams. ,,-ho gaYe her father .1 book of them for Christmas and died a ,-ear later.~6. ~ 1 9-34·

·s·

2 39~

nosis.-I~7

-l.'i- Professor of philosophy and

1 5~

Schizophrenic wom:m ,,-ho painted picrures to objectify her .:ondition.-JOG-101 Young Frenchm:m whose depression began following journe,- to Spain and dream of c:nhedrJ.l.-1 12-23. Toledo

Jt36 6 Yotmg man "·ith compulsion neurosis. li,·ing off a ,,-oman ·s sa,·ings. who wrote :mal~·sis of his case.-r .:!8-.~o \\-om:m doctor aged 58 whose p:·e,·ious :malyst had sh0\,11 no emotions.-r 39 ·s· ~I:m who bDught Egypti:m

88o

psnhologv ,,-ith cancer phobia.-.:!06. 242 -16- ~Ian trying to .. get abow himself' "hose dream foreshadows his death in mountJin accident.-20/ -] ~- \\-oman whose dreams foreshadowed attack on her by sexual perYert.-208 -] s· :\lan ,,-hose cause of neurosis was circunn·enred for ten wars.-.:! 2-f-.:!j Ei Professor ,,-ho had Yision repeJ.tc-d in old "·oodcut.-220. )-j.O

· 21Y _-\lcoholic cured temporarily by

Oxford Group. sent to Jung after relapse.-.:!.p. 272

INDEX

[21] Woman of the nobility who discussed her analysis with a father-confessor.-269 Jesuit [22] Catholic lady from Rome who was helped back into full confession by J ung, after overinvolvement with father-confessor.-271-72 [23] Woman student of philosophy with father-transference to ]ung.-277 [24] Jewish girl with anxiety neurosis.-2 78-79 girl.-309, [25 J Somnambulistic 482 [26] Boy aged g who stabbed his sister after a "little man" appeared to him.-343-H [27] Man who murdered his family; his wife, a member of a religious sect, instilled the criminal impulse into him.344-45 [28] 35-year-old female hysteric with respiratory disturbances. -430-31 [29] 34-year-old female neurotic with fantasy of man suspended by genitals.-446 [30] Woman, later treated by van Helsdingen, whose paintings reflect her childhood divided between Indomalaysia and Holland (sister of Case 1 o). -s3o-3I [31] Seven-year-old son of unhappy marriage who put pictures of mandalas round his bed.-538 "The Aims of PsychoWORKS: therapy," r66n; Aion, 8gn, 121n, 673, 678, 682n, 688n, 68gn, 6g2n, 7I In, 7I6n, 7I8, 732n, 736n, 742n, 825n; Alchemical Studies, 68n; "Answer to Job," 68In, 68gn, 702n, 705, 7II&n, 7I7, 725, 729, 740; The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, 3 7n, 42n;

881

"Archetypes of the Collective Un"Associations 683n; conscious, d"idees familiales," 420; Aufsiitze zur Zcitgeschichte, 59 In; "Beitrage zur Symbolik," untraced lecture at \Veirnar Congress, Rank's abstract, 446n; '"Blick in die Verbrecherseele," 343n; '·Brother Klaus," 39n, ggn, 683n; ''A Case of Hysterical Stupor in a Prisoner in Detention," 4I5n; Civilization in Transition, 47n; Collected Papers on Analytical Psychology, 459n; "Commentary on 'The Secret of the Golden Flo\\·er'," r66n, 1 79n; "The Complications of American Psychol465n, sszn; "Concerning ogy, Mandala Symbolism," 145n, I7gn, 525n, 538n, 577n; ''Concerning Psychoanalysis," 427n; "Concerning Rebirth," 525n, 556n, 675n; "The Content of the Psychoses," 354n; Contributions to Analytical Psychology, 459n, 623n; Diagnostische Assoziationsstudien, 398, 400; '·DreJ.m Symbols of the Process of Individuation," 67n; Essays on Contemporary Events, 59In; Experimental Researches, 48n; ''Ein Fall von hysterischem Stupor bei Untersuchungsgefangenen," einer 4I5; "The Familial Constellations," 74n; "Flying Saucers: A Modern Myth," 63rn, 7I5n; Foreword to White's God and the Unconscious, 474; The Freud!Jung Letters, 333n n, 33sn, 339n, 3 7sn, 3 76n, 377nn, 38on, 38In, 383n, 386n, 387n, 388n, 392n, 398n, 4o6n,42on, 422n, 423nn, 426n,427n, 43on,44I, 443n, 55 In, sszn, 76rn; "Further Investigations on the Galvanic Phenomenon and Respiration in Normal and Insane Individuals" (with Ricksher), 27n; "General Aspects of Dream Psychology," 78n, 459n; Unbewussten, des Gestaltungen 3 27n, 825n; ''Herisau lecture," 44 I;

INDEX

(cont.): L'Homme a la decouverte de son rime, I23n, 6I3n; "Instinct and the Unconscious," 459n, 535n; The Interpretation of Nature and the Psyche (with Pauli), 473n; Letters, ed. G. Adler, 285n, 3 I 2n, 494n, 502n, 56 In, 6I 6n, 673n, 679n, 702n, 762n, 767n, 773n, 788n, 789n; Man and His Symbols (with von Franz et a!.), I83; lvfemories, Dreams, Reflections, 2 I 4n, 278n, 361, 554n, 798n; "Mind and Earth," 552n; Ein Moderner lt-!ythus, 63I; Modern Alan in Search of a Soul, 589n; Mysterium Coniunctionis, 545n, 6so, 683n, 825n; Naturerkliirung und Psyche (with Pauli), 494n; ''New Paths in Psychology," 427n; "Le nuove vedute della psicologia criminale," 4I r; ''On the Importance of the Unconscious in Psychopathology," 7on; ''On the Nature of Dreams," 78n, 46o; "On the Nature of the Psyche," 50In, 683n, 705n; ''On the Practical Use of Dream Analysis," 78n; "On Psychic Energy," 459n; "On the Psychogenesis of Schizophrenia," 69n; "On Psychological Understanding," 7on; "On the Psychology and Pathology of So-called Occult Phenomena," 3ogn; Paracelsica, 753n; "Paracelsus as a Spiritual Phenomenon," 462n; Phenomenes occultes, trans. E. Godet and Y. Le Lay, 3ogn; "The Phenomenology of the Spirit in Fairytales," 649, 732n; "The Philosophical Tree," 529, 677n; The Practice of Psychotherapy, 66n; II problema dell'inconscio nella psicologia moderna, trans. A. Vita and G. Bollea, 559n; The Process of Individuation, 707n; Psychiatric Studies, 20on; "A Psychological Approach to the Dogma of the Trinity," 649, 7I w; "The Psychological Diagnosis of Evi-

juNo, CARL GusTAV: WORKS

dence," 307n; ''Psychological Factors Determining Human Behaviour," 564&n; "The Psychological Foundations of Belief in Spirits," 3ogn; 459n; Psychological Types, I 2n, I 3n, I .J:n, I 7n, 43n, 8gn, I I 5n, I66n, 6I3n, 623&n, 690, 704, 76In; Die Psychologic der Ubertragung, 613n, 753n; Psychologic und Alchemic, 753n, 825n; Psychologic und Erziehung, 6I3n; "Psychologie und Spiritismus," 3 I 2n; Psychologische Abhandlungen, 459, 525, 529, 558, 625, 649, 825; Die psychologische Diagnose des Tatbestandes, 4 I I; Psychology and Alchemy, Jin, 67n, 99n, I2In, I22n, I67n, I7In, I74n, 175n, 285n, 5I6n, 538n, 7IIn, 722n, 775n, 798n, 799n; "Psychology and Literature," 39n, 5 25n; Psychology and Religion, I In, 39n, 6I3n; "The Psychology of Dementia Praecox," 349, 354, 3 76n, 406; "The Psychology of Dictatorship," 566n; "The Psychology of Eastern Meditation," 65on, 739n; "The Psychology of the Transference," I 54n, 650, 748n, 797n, 798n, Boon; Psychology of the Unconscious, 38n, 355, 459n, 552n, 6g7n, 724; "Psychophysical Investigations with the Galvanometer and Pneumograph in Normal and Insane Individuals" (with Peterson), 27n; "Psychotherapy Today," 26gn; "'The Reaction-time Ratio in the Association Experiment," 303; "The Realities of Practical Psychotherapy," I In, 145n, 531n, 578n; "The Relations between the Ego and the Unconscious," 6I3n; "A Review of the Complex Theory," 460; "Richard Wilhelm: In Memoriam," 553n; "The Role of the Unconscious," r63n, 465n, 573n; The Secret of the Golden Flower (with Wilhelm), 753n; Seelenprobleme der

INDEX

Gegenwart, 825n; forewords, 5586o; VII Sermones ad Afortuos, 663n; "The Significance of the Father in the Destiny of the Individual," 74n; "The Soul and Death," 3ogn; "The Spirit Mcrcurius," 649, 732nn; The Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche, 42n, 10gn; "The Structure of the Unconscious," 449n; Studies in Word Association, 48n; "A Study in the Process of Individuation," I66n, 525n, 577n; Symbolik des Geistes, 753n, 825n; Symbols of Transformation, I on, 38n, 42n, gin, rosn, I17n, I2ln, 355, 44 I, 446n, 724; "Synchronicity: An Acausal Connecting Princi pie," 34n, 4 77n, 494n, 5 I I; "The Theory of Psychoanalysis," 436n, 535n; "The Therapeutic Value of Abreaction," 69n; "The Transcendent Function," 449n, 6gon; "Transformation Symbolism in the Mass," 735n; "Traumsymbole des lndividuationsprozesses," 67n; Two Essays on Analytical Psychology, 49n, 72n, Bgn, I55n, I6on, I66n, 277n, 579n, 623n, 7Ig; Dber die Energetik der Seele, 825n; Cber psychische Energetik und das Wesen der Triiume, 6r3n; Cber die Psychologic des U nbewussten, 6I3n; "Versuch einer Darstellung der psychoanalytischen Theorie," 436n; "Von den Wurzeln des Bewusstseins," 825n; W andlungen und Symbole der Libido, 354n, 459, 552, 562n, 697n; Wirklichkeit der Seele, 825n; "Wotan," I64n, 577n, 6oon; "Zur Umerziehung des deutschen Volkes," 599n; ed., see also Jahrbuch fur psychoanalytische und psycho pat hologische F orschungen J ung Codex, see cODICES Jung, C. G., Institute for Analytical Psychology, Zurich, 6o6&n; J.'s ad-

dress at founding of, 471-76; address on presentation of J. Codex, 67 r &n, 826&n; foreword to first volume of Studies, 487-88 Jung, Emma, 768, 825n; ''Ein Beitrag zum Problem des Animus"/trans. Cary F. Baynes, ''On the Nature of the Animus," 768n Jupiter, planet, 67 jus jnimae noctis, I 59 justification by faith, 7 I9 "Just So Story,'' 230, 504, so6

K Kabbala, 652, 672, 736, 828 Kankeleit, Otto: Das U nbewusste als Kcimstiitte des Schopferischen, J.'s foreword and contribution, 78687 Kant, Immanuel, 7, 62, 2 I 3, 299, 3 I 8, 772; Anthro pologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht, 7n; and anthropology, 5 Is; Critique of Pure Reason, 7o6; Dreams of a Spirit-Seer, trans. E. F. Goerwitz, 297n, 3 IBn; on Swedenborg, 297-99; psychology of, 379 Kardec, Allan: Buch der Mcdien, 304 katabas~, 38, I20 Katzaroff, Dimitre: "Experiences sur le role de Ia recitation comme facteur de Ia memorisation," 42 In Kepler, Johann: astronomy of, and archetypal triad, 4 73 Keplerbund, 42 7-29 Kerenyi, Karl, 472, 485, 529 Kerner, Justinus, 2oi, 294, 340, 775; Bliitter aus Prevorst, 20o&n; Die Geschichte des Thomas lgnaz Martin, 299n; The Somnambulant Tables/Die somnambulen Tische, 2g6&n kerygmatics, 6o2 Kesselring, Max, 427-29 key: in dream of Toledo, I 22; and mysteries, I 2 I

INDEX

Ke,·hot>. Donald E.. 62611; J-"s letter to. 632-33: Flying Saucers from Outer Sj>acc. 62711 Ke,·serling. Count Hermann. 663; ··Begegnungen mit der PsychoanalYse.·· 66111 Khidr;.-\1-Khadir. 556: Elijah and, 6j.J-77 Khunrath. Heinrich. 75 I Kingdom of God. on e:Jrth. 245 Kirsch. James. 6()211 Kitchin. Derek. 265. 287 Kleist. Karl: l"ntcrsuchungcn ;;ur Kcnntnis dcr j>sychomotorischrn Beu:egu1zgsstorungcn bei Gcistkrankcn. J-'s re\·ie,,-, 382 Knapp. Albert. 376: Die polyncuritischcn P_;ychoscn. J-"s re\"ie\\". 378 Koenig-Fachsenfeld, Olga \"On: Trandlungcn des Traumprob!ems :on do Romantik bis ;;ur Gcgcrzzcart. J-"s fore\\ord, 773-75 Kolb. Eugen, 6o-t Kopp, Hermann: Die Alchemic zn iiltacr und neuaer Zeit, 676 Korrcsjwndcn;;b/att dcr intcrnationalcn psychoanalytischcn T'crcinigung Bulletin . 423n Kraepelin. EmiL 3 79: diagnostics of, 38s Krafft-Ebing. Richard \"on: case of srn·ant-girl aged 24 with hallucinations. 298; Lchrbuch dcr Psychiatric/Textbook of Insanity. 2()811 Kranefeldt. \\-_ ~L. S I 7. 768. 7/3. 823n: -- ·E,,·ige Analyse·,·· 768n; --Der Gegensa tz \"On Sinn und Rh)·thmus in seelischen Geschehen."· ;68n; --'Komplex· und ~fy thos."' ss8n: Secret Ways of the .\find, I2jn. 51711 Kretschmer. Ernst. 630 ··Kreuzlingen episode.·· in Freud/ Jung relatio:1ship. 43011 Kundalini. sec yoga s.:·. KunkeL Fritz. 3 I 2n

L labour camps in Russia, 665 Labour Party. 579 Lacl1at. Perc \\-illiam: J-'s letter to, 679----C) I: La Rece jJtion et l' action du Saint-Es j>rit dans Ia l'ie personnclle ct communautaire, 67911 Ladame, - : --L'Association des idees et son utilisation comme methode d'examen dans Jes maladies mentales," 412; re\"iew of J.'s Psychologic der Dementia praecox, 412 Lafargue, Rene. 67311 l:lmaism. mandalas of. r8 r, s r 6, 5 78 Lang. Josef. 82511 Lange. C. G.. 25n Lange. Wilhelm, 336; Holder/in: cine Pathographie. 336n language, history of, 443 Lao-tzu: ""high stands on Jm,-," 233; T ao-te-c hing. 53911 laj,is: as alrxij>harmacum, 722; and art if ex. 722&11: exilis, 798; noster, 775: philosophorum. symbolism of, 753: semcl factus, 722 La Rocque. Fran«;ois de. 575n Laszlo. \ 'iolet S. de: Psyche and Symbol. J.'s fore,,·ord, 537--F Latin spirit. 47 League of Xations. 578 '"least of your brethrrn ... 280 Le Bon, Gustaw: The Crou·d: A Study of the Pojwlar .\lind, 138, 648 Leibniz. G. \\".. 62. 77 r; Xout·eaux Essais sur l'cntcndcment humain, 9n; '·petites perceptions," 305, -t 77· 5I5 Leipzig. i8n. 86, 8i. 89. 94 Le Lay. Yws. sec Jung, C. G., \\'ORKS: ph( llO Ill enc S occuftes Lemaitre. A.: ·'Cn nou\'eau cycle somnambulique de ~file. Smith,'' -f:?In Leo. zodiacal sign, r 2 I Lrroy. E.-Bernard: '"Escroquerie et hypnose, •· 42 In

INDEX

Leslie, Desmond, 627n Levi, Herta, 82on levitation, 300 Levy-Bruhl, Lucien: How Natives Think, 42n; on "l'etat pn!logique," 562; on participation mystique, 42, 194&n, 205; see also representations collectives Lexicon der Paedogogik, 477n liberation, 635 libido: and adaptation, 450; -fixations, 48o; Freud's concept, 48o; infantile fixation of, r 24; lion and snake as symbols of, 444 Liebeault, Auguste Ambroise, 34o&n Liepmann, H. K., 3 76 life: after death, 287, 288, 294; banal, 274; divine drama of, 274, 275; meaningful, 275; meaning of, 246, 263; rules of, 625; second half of, 315, 485; symbolic, 282; too rational, 274 light, wave and particle theory of, 33, 34n light-bringer, Christ as, 671, 826 lightning, 628 lingam as symbol, 249, 250 Lippmann, E. 0. von: Enstehung und Ausbreitung der Alchemie, 747 Lipps, Theodor, 477 Locke, John, gn Lodge, Sir 0 liver, 3 14 Lowenfeld, Leopold, 378&n; Homosexualitiit und Strafgesetz, J.'s review, 382; Der Hyjmotismus: Handbuch der Lehre von der Hypnose und der Suggestion, 378&n; and H. Kurella, eds., Grenzfragen des Nerven- und Seelenlebens, 361n Logos, 121, 731 Lombard, Emile: "Essai d'une classification des phenomenes de glossolalie," 420n Lomer, George: Liebe und Psychose, J.'s review, 380 London, 70 loneliness, 276 lotus ( padma) , 5 78

Louis XIV, 5 74 love, and transference, LÂą3 lubricum illud genusj''that sex," 714&n Lucifer, 73 '2 Iucus a non lucendo, 318 Luff, Mary C., 32 Luke, Gospel of, I 33n Lullius, Raymundus/Lull, 238, 74 7' 797 lumen de lumine, 723 Luna, I8o Lutherans in Sweden, 281 lying/lies: doctor's telling pathological/ pseudologia tica, 596, 6o4

slippery

Ramon,

of, 6zo; jJhantas-

M Mabbott, J. D., 744n McCarthyism, 631 MacDonald, Ramsay, 579&n McDougall, William, 69&n Macintyre, Alasdair, 744n r-.1ackenzie, Marion, I 32 macula peccati, 687, 718, 723, 729 Madeleine, Mme., 377&n Maeder, Alphonse: "A propos des symboles," 4 q; "Contributions a Ia psychopathologic de Ia vie quotidienne," J.'s abstract, 412; ''Essai d'interpretation de quelques reves," 4 I 3; "Nouvelles contributions a Ia psychopathologic de la vie quotidienne," J.'s abstract, 4I2, 421n; "Die Symbolik in den Legenden, Marchen, Gebrauchen und Traumen," J.'s abstract, 413; Une voie nouvelle en psychologie, J.'s abstract, 413, 414 magic: sexual, 92; today, 328 magnetism, animal, see animal s.v. Mahaim Clini-:, Cery, 761 Mahatmas, I 53 Mahayana, mandala, 7 I 7, 739 Maidenek, concentration camp at, 599&n

sss

IXDEX

male and female: as opposites, 7 q. 7I6: principle. n8-2o. I22 .\lalinine. .\L. with H. C. Puech and G. Quispel. eds .. Ecangflium Vcritatis, 67 r n :\Ialinowski. Bronislaw. s6In man: archaic. 2 28: dehumanization of. s93: gO\·emed by demon. S94; isolated in cosmos. 2ss: .. is "·hat he eats.'' s98: modern, 2os, 256; original. 28o: scientific and inventi\·e mind of. 26o; as totality, 3 I 7 mana. 2-fO. 24 I. 7 IS :\landaean s' , 6;6 mandalas', I/8, I79: S37· 538,577, 578: healing purpose of. I23; and indi\·iduation. 719; Lamaic, see Lamaism; :\I aha yana, 7 I 7; motif. 67n; of Rhodesia, prehistoric, sr6; as rotating figure. 578: swastika as. 578: symbolism of. I 78. j i j ; - . and God-image. 6s9: trinity and triad in. 714· 7I6 :\fan get. J. J.: Bibliotheca chemica cu rzosa. 733n manic depression. 3 L 35 I. 3 i j. 38s :\lanichaean dualism, 726 marzipura chakra, 6j, 9S mankind, as one indi\idual. 2-t.f :\lann. Thomas. 697rz :\farduk. spring-god in Babylonian myth, JOS :\laria. axiom of. and proportio sesquitcrtia, 4 76 :\farie, A.: --sur quelques troubles fonctionnels de !'audition chez certains de biles mentaux,'' 42 In :\lark, St.. 24 7 marriage: Christian. I 57. 8og; compensatory character of, 4 76: crosscousm. 473: heawnly, 299; horoscopes. 495· 502. 503: psychology of. i7: quatcmio, 473 :\larseilles. I 1 yz :\farti. Fritz. 429&rz :\fartin. P. \\'., 6o6rz .\fanin. Thomas lgnaz. 299: Die Gt'J·chichtc dts Thomas Igrza: Jfar-

tin. by J. Kerner, zggn :\far·y. :\I other of God: Assumption of. 689. /I3. 714, 7.p; Assumptio Beatar Cirgirzis. 7q, 731; as bride in bridal-chamber, 68I&n, /427!; as Co-Redemptrix, 7 q. 73 I; Immaculate Conception/ co nee ptio immaculata. 714· 738; and .\farianic mowment. 7q; as omnium gratiarum mediatrix, 68g: Protestant \·ie\,- of. 687; as rirgo terra, 68g :\fary :\fagdalene, 6g2 .\lass. the: Host in. and :\fithras cult, 2 70; as li\·ing m~·stery. 270; miracle of. 276 mass es : conn~rsions, 6o2; danger of. sgo; e\il and, 60 I; hypnotism, 6o I: individual in. and unconscious compensation. 4 76: -mindedness, 6os: phenomenon. demonic features in. 6or: politics and, s64; psychologv of. r6r, S/L s86. 6os; psychosis. 6o;: suggestion, 595, 596, 6or, 6o2 :\later :\fagna. 554 materialism. 6o3n. 733· 734; and psychology. S2 3: scientific. 3 q. -t63, 734: and spiritual de\·astation, 583 matriarchal symbolism, S2I matter. physical. 2SS :\Iatthe\,-. Book of. 23 r maturation. analysis as, I 72 :\Iatuta. goddess of death, g I :\fauss, :\1., sa under Hubert, H. .\faya. 464. 670 :\fead, G.R.S.: The Gnostic John the Bapti:er, 6g4n mechanization. 3 70 :\lechtild of :\fagdeburg. H-t m<dicirza catholica. 6gg: lapis as, 722 medicine: ancient Egyptian, see Egypt s.: .: ancient Greek, see Greek s.~.: and borrowing from other sciences. 35 j. 358: lack of psychological understanding, 355 medicine-man. 285. 286. sjo; ability to "smell. .. 325: on dreams, SS7

886

INDEX

mediums, 294, 299, 301, 30-J--7, 313; controls, 3 12; hysterical symptoms among, 302; see also White, Betty megalomania, 1-timega phone oratory, 601 Mehlich, Rose: f. H. Fichtes Seelenlehre und ihre Beziehung zur Gegenwart, J.'s foreword, 770-72 Meier, C. A., 472, 671, 826&n; Anlike Inkubation und modcrne PsychotherajJie, 487n Meir, Rabbi, 674 melancholia, 31 ~fellon, Paul and Mary, Collection,

7-J-7n melothesiae, 1 1 n memory ( -ies) : as function, 22; healing effect of, 258; infantile, recollection of, 259 Menninger, Karl, 634n mental disease/disturbance, 353; social definition of, 35 !\lenzel, reflection theory of, 628 Mephistopheles, see Goethe: Faust ~fercurius, 752; and Elijah legend, 676, 677; Kyllenios, 749; as Mephistopheles, 748; and ~lithras, 676; and serjJens mercurialis, 232, 722; and transformation, 748 Merlin, 742 :'\.lesmer, Franz Anton, 295, 339, 340 mesmerism, 294, 339, 340 Mesolithic Age, 39 Mesopotamia, 109 Messina earthquake, 92&n metaphysical: assertions, dishonesty of, 737, 738; principle, amorality of, 733 metaphysics: and archetypes, 519; and science, 707, 708 meteors/meteorites, 307&n method: analytical, 6o8; causal-reductive, 478; comparative, 7; scientific, 309; statistical, 3 1g; teaching of, 251 Metra!, M.: ''Experiences scolaires sur Ia memoire de l'orthographe," .pon

Meyer, E_: Die L-rsachen der Geisteskrankhciten, ].'s review, 381 Meyer, Konrad Ferdinand, 336n; periodic melancholia of, 336; see also under Sadger Michelsen, Johann: 429; Ein Wort an geistigen Adel deutscher Nation, 429n microbes, 262 microcosm. man as, 695, 696 :\fiddle Ages, 67, 232; art in, I73; dreams in, 66, 1 12, 236; and jus jnimae noctis, 159; mythological world of, 593; secret traditions in, 115, 120; Weltanschauung of, I 15 Midrash, 688 Mieg, Joannes Fridericus: De raptu Eliae, 674 migration, and dissemination of mythological symbols, 553 ~Iiller, Emanuel, 102 mind: archetypal, -J-5; basic conformity of, -J-2; between death and birth, 95; growth to consciousness of, 2-J- 1; history and phenomenology of, 356; not born a tabula rasa, 540; original, 258, 259; structure of, 36 Minerva, goddess, I r 1 miracle-stories, in Gospel, 693 _\!ishmar, The Daily Guardian, 604 misoneism, I92, I94 Mithras/~lithraism: A ion (key god) in, I 2 I; bells in, 270; bread stamped with cross/divided into four, 270; and Christianity, IIS, 117; and Elijah myth, 676, 677; killing of bull in, 4-J--J-; liturgy, star in, 695; Roman army and, 554; Sol and, 676; Tauroktonos, 11 7; water/ springs in, 1 17, 270 Moebius/Mobius, Paul Julius, 336&n, 388; on hysterical symptom, 3 75, 388 Mohammed ( -ans), 289 Moieschott, Jacob, 598 Moll, Albert, 34I&n; Der Hyjmotismus, mit Einschluss der Haujd-

INDEX ~lolL

Albert (cont.): punktc dcr Psychotherapie und des Occultismus, J.'s review, 377, 378 monad, Anthropos as, 7 I 5 ~lonakow, Constantin von, 333&n monasteries, 282 money: devaluation of, 5 76; dilution of, 573; fictitious character of, s67; hollowing out of, 5 73; the State and, 572-4 ~lonogenes, I 22 moon: conjunction, in marriage horoscopes, -±95, -t96, -t98, 499, 502-7; as symbol of unconscious, I8o ~foorish Kingdom, I q moral la\1· as psychic fact, 6I9 morality: and greed, 6 I 2; in large organizations, 57 I; relativity of, i I 3; sexual, and psychoanalysis, 39-t· 395; social v. individual, 383 ~fora! Re-Armament movement, Caux centre, 68 I &n, 683 ~forgan, D. Glan, 283-85 ~forienus Romanus, 750&n; "De transmuta tione metallorum," m Artis auriferae, 75on ~foroney, l\f. J., 507n :Moser, Fanny: Okkultismus: Tiiuschungen und Tatsache, 3 I 7n; Spuk: lrrlaube oder Wahrglaube?, 3I7; -, J.'s foreword, 317-26 l\foses, 205; and Elijah, parallels,

67-t !\loses ben Leon, 675 :Moses Cordovero, 675 l\fosley, Sir OS\\·ald, 57 s&n mother -dragon, 9 I, I 05 mother: duaL motif of, 658; earth-, -t8+; and feeling function, 89; figures, three, 732; fixation, 277; -low, crushing weight of, 338; significance of, in life of K. F. Meyer, 337, 338; terrible, 91 l\Iother: all-compassionate, 276; Earth, 255; of God, as arch-saint, gg; Great, 239, 255; -, sacrifice to, -±46

motif: of hostile brothers, 228; mythological, see myth s.v. motivation, and psychotherapy: of patient, 609, 6I3; of teacher, 6Io, 6II mountain: climbing, and dream, 207; sickness, 78, 79, 88, 89, 96 movement ( s), automatic, 303-5 mulier taceat in ecclesia, 742 Mi.iller, Hermann: "Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Hypermesis Gravidarum," J.'s abstract, 4I4; "Ein Fall von induzierten Irresein nebst anschliessenden Erorterungen," 4 I4 mulungu, 240 mungu, 240 Murray, Henry A.: "Conclusions" to Explorations in Personality, 269n Murren, advertisement for, 1 70 Mussolini, Benito/11 Duce, I27, 165, 576, 578, 579 mutilation, numinous, 348 Myers, F.H.W., 477 mysteria of early Christianity, 115 mysterium: iniquitatis, 690; tremendum, 270 mystery ( -ies) : ancient, I 20, 122; as expression of psychological condition, 270 mystical experiences, 57 7 mysticism, 98; medieval, 280 mystics, and experience of archetypes, g8 myth (s), 38; and collective unconscious, 487; as mental therapy, 238; motifs, 38, 39, 228, 515; and mythologizing factor, 592; reinterpretation of, 736; as symbols that happened, 24 7 mythologem, theological preaching as,

682 mythology, 4 I, 91, 354; ambivalence in, 443; archetypal motifs in, 658; Greek, see Greek s.v.; opposites in, 443, 444; a psychic phenomenon of the present, 327; Scandinavian, 92; truth of, 328

888

INDEX

N ~aassenes,

67 I, 82 7 Nacke, Paul: Ueber Familienmord durch Ceistcskranke, ].'s review, 386 Nagel, Hildegard, 645n, 654n Nageli, - , ( Freiburg im Breisgau), 296 Nag Hamadi, Upper Egypt, 67In Nagy, Peter: trans. into Hungarian of Jung's On the Psychology of the Unconscious, J.'s foreword, 455-56 namazu, 33n Napoleon I, 22I, 222 Napoleon III, 299 nation (s) : in collective misery, 5 77; psychology of, 57 I National Industrial Recovery Act (U.S.A.), 575n National Investigations Committee on Aerial Phenomena (NICAP), 626n; J.'s statement to, 63I, 632 nationalism, 567 National Recovery Administration (C.S.A.), 575&n National Socialism/Nazi(sm), I65, 28g, 5 74, 594, 7 I 5 Nature, I56; conquest of, 26r; dedeification of, 593, 6o2; demands death, 275; demonism of, 593, 594; de-psychization of, 59 I, 593-g5; man and, 255, 26o; populated with monstrous machines, 26o; -spirit, 649 Navaho, see American Indians: North Nazi(s), see National Socialism .Veanderthalensis, 2 I 4 Near East, symbolism of dying god in, 239 1\:ebuchadnezzar, dream of, Iog, I IO negativism, 37I 0iegro(es), 35, 46, 47, I48; dreams of, 37-40, 552&n; myth, I I9; psychoses of, 552; religion of, 552; thoughts "in the belly," ro; and white man, idealization of, 552

Neiditsch, Jeanne, 398n Nekyia, 38, I07 Nelken, Jan, 433n; "Analytische Beobachtungen i.iber Phantasien eines Schizophrenen," J.'s comment on Tausk's criticism, 433-3 7 neo-paganism, 569, 576, 647 Nerval, Gerard de (pseudonym of Gerard Labrunie), 545; J.'s lecture on, 779 nervous system, of analyst, I 54 Neue Preussische Zeitung, 296 Neue Zurcher Zeitung, J.'s letters in, 427n Neumann, Erich, 474, 485, 529; Amor and Psyche, 668; Depth Psychology and a New Ethic, J.'s foreword, 6I 6-2o; The Origins and History of Consciousness, 474n; J.'s foreword, 4 74-75 Neumann, Karl Eugen: Die Reden Cotamo Buddhas, J.'s comment on, 6g7&n Neumann, Therese, see Therese of Konnersreuth neuralgia, 374 neurology ( -ists), 34 I; Freud's theories and, 388 neurosis, 24, 340; adaptation process in, 449; as attempt at self-cure, I 68, I 6g; childhood as origin of, in later life, 420; compulsion, see com pulsion; definition, I 67; as expression of affections of whole man, 357; a moral problem, 6q; psychogenic nature of, 380; psychological conception of, 34I, 390; psychology and therapy of, 357, 358; reason for, 274; sexual theory of, 388, 402, 438; structure of, 665; symbolic value of, 65 2; a terra incognita, 354; as transitory phase, 284 neurotic(s): behaviour of, I97; complexes in, 353; isolation of, 105; symptoms, I87 New Mexico, J .'s visit to, I 23, 554 New York Times, 438, 564n Nicholas of Cusa, 682

88g

INDEX ::\~icholas

\·on der Flue, see Brother

Klaus ::\iehus~Jung. ::\larianne, s66n ::\ietzsche. Friedrich Wilhelm, 3 I, I99, 233. 39{, 395, 4-63, 492, 546, .)60, 6j{. /2 I; and "blond beast," 573; Dudu and Suleika, 546&n; Genealogy of .\!orals, Freud's \1·ork compared to, +39: madness of, 62o; and Superman. 6oo; Thus S jJQke Zarathustra, 31. 202. 546&n, 578; - , and Kerner, parallel, 200, 20I nihil est in intellcctu . . . , 9 J\ile, I 2 I nirdvand<·a, 62o, 720 l\in·ana, 667 ::\onconformists, 283 normality: mental and moral conflicts of, 6o6; and neurosis, closeness of. 25 I ·'nothing but'': Freud's explanation, 277; people as, 27{ nuclear deterrent, 245 numbers: archetypes and, 497, 498; as autonomous entities, 497, 498; as mythological entities, 203; in table-tilting experiment, 305, 306; sec also four; thirteen; three numina, flight of, 26I numinosity: of cultural symbols, 253; destruction of, 254; loss of, 254; of words, 257 Nuremberg: first German railway from, 308n; see also Psychoanalytic Congresses s.v. Second

0 obedience. primordial instinct of, 72 I object: and subject, see subject; and \l·ithdrawal of projection, 668 objectivation of impersonal Images, I 66, 173, 179 observation, sources of error in, 307 Obsen·er (London)' 58 In obsession ( s;, 2o6; psychotherapy of, 362

obsessional neurosis, 388 Occam's Razor, 37m occult phenomena, 293-3 29, 3 78 Odin, 443 Odyssey, 38 Oedipus complex, { 79 olfactory organ, degeneration of, m man, 325, 326 Olympiodorus, 75I one-sidedness, 6: of conscious mind, 316, 62 1; of \\'estern attitude, 655 operations, cosmetic, 34 7 opposites, 2-15; balancing of, 620; collision of, 62o; conflict of: crucifixion as, 688; - , and individuation, 727; - . in normal people, 6o7; cooperation of, 719; divine, 68g; functions as, r8; inner confrontation of, 35 I; pairs of, see belou·: problem of, and Assumption of Mary, 7 q; structure of, 351; suspension between, 68g; symbolism of, 351; system of, in mania, 351; union of, see below; \\'renched apart, in Germans, 6oo opposites, pairs of: contained in one word, -t·Ll; instances, 245, 44-3, Hi-· 719 • sec also Christ s.v. and devil; good and e\·il; male and female; right and left;; and symbols, 226 opposites, union of, 1 I8, I Ig, 122; and enantiodromia, 71 I; and Holy Spirit, 689, 6g1; in man, 68g, 734; in symbol. 259; in transcendent function, 690 opus alchymicum/alchemical, 59 I; as creation of world, repeated, 721, 722; as hicrosgamos, 748 opus dh·inum, 72I opus nostrum, I7I organ-inferiority, 48 I organic disease, and archetypal symbols, 103, 133, I 34 Oriental, see East/Eastern Origen, 231, 688 Orphic cult, I I 7 Orthodox Church, 281, 282

8go

INDEX

Orthos, 315, 316 Osiris, 6g4&n; and Horus, 239 Oxford Group :Movement, 162, 272, 739 Oxyrhynchus sayings of Jesus, I22

p jwdma (lotus), 578 Page, George H., 826&n paintings/drawings, by patients: in psychiatric diagnosis, 8oz; value of, 530 Paleolithic Age, 39 paleontology, 2I4 Palestine, 1o8 Pali Canon, see Buddha s.v. palmistry, 820 Pammeter, 788 pantokrator, 694 Papal Bull: Summis desidcrantes, 607 papyrus, Gnostic, in Coptic (Jung Codex), 67I&n, 826 Paracelsus, 751, 784, 785; "De tinctura physicorum," 676; De vita longa, ed. Adam v. Bodenstein, 676n; on Hyliaster, 462-64; Siimmtliche Werke, ed. K. Sudhoff, 784&n; and scientific medicine, 462 paraesthesia, 389 paralysis: and unconscious memory, 303; of the will, 329 paranoia, 3 79 parapraxes, 4 79 parapsychological experiences, 3 I 7, 66o, 694n parapsychological phenomena: J ung's own, 3 2 2; sources of, 3 I 9; truth of, 329 parapsychology, 320, 326, 327; future of, 510, 511 parents: influence of, in childhood neurosis/hysteria, 374, 485, 8os, 8o6, 8zz; liberation from, I56, I57; psychic situation of, 358, 6I I

Paris, 47, 52 parousia, 68 1, 6g 1, 693 Parsifal, 742 particij1ation mystique, see LevyBruhl Pascal, Constanza: ''Les Maladies mentales de Robert Schumann," 421n Passover, feast of, 674 p:1thography, 336 pathology, psychosexual, 380, 38I patient ( s) : in auto-erotic insulation, q.6; face to face ,,Âˇith therapist, I39, qo; language of, 225, 276; own need for know ledge, 4 70 Patricius and Hilarius, soothsayers, 296 Patristic literature, 283 patterns of behaviour, 8z8 Paul, St., 24 7, 28o, zg8, 6gs, 6g6, 727; and cursing, 646; JewishGnostic presuppositions of, 65 2; on resurrect ion of Christ, 6g2, 693; vision of Christ, 705 Pauli, Âˇ\\"olfgang, z8sn, 473; '"The Influence of Archetypal Ideas on the Scientific Theories of Kepler," Peale, I'\ orman \'incent, 638n 473n pendulum, automatic, 295, zg6, 302 penis: amputation of, 347; and lingam symbolism, 249, 250 penitence, 7 I 9 Peratics, 67 1, 827 perception: olfactory, 3 25; unconscious, z8, 3 I 3 perineum, I r Pernety, A. ]. : Dictionnaire mythohermetique, 75I perpetuum mobile, 1 74 Perry, John Weir: The Self in Psychotic Process, J.'s foreword, 35356 persecution, and secret love, 6oo Persian religion, 1 I 7 persona, 49, 5 79&n; of public figure, 579; and unconscious, 453 personality: activated portions of the

Sgr

INDEX

personality (cont.): unconscious as, 3 I 2; archaic, in ourselves, ::w; centre of, I 79; fragmentary, 73, I oo; future, 22; magic, I 55; splinter-, 309 personification of unconscious contents, 3 I 2 Peter, St., I 22, 692 Peter of Toledo, 796 Peterson, Frederick, 27n '·petites perceptions," see Leibniz petitio principii, 689 petra scandali, 7+4 Pfister, Oskar: ''Ein Fall von psychoanalytischer Seelsorge und Seelenheilung," 414; ''Psychoanalytische Seelsorge und experimentelle Moralpadagogik," 414; "Wahnvorstellung und Schiilerselbstmord," 414 Pharaoh, I04; twice-born, 157 pharmakon athanasias, I 07 phenomenology, 289 Philo Judaeus, 652&n philosophy: Chinese, see China/ Chinese s.v.; medieval, I 74; and psychology, 87, 355, 617; spiritualistic, 3 I 5 Philp, H. L.: Jung and the Problem of Evil, extracts, 702-I9 phlegmone, 237 Phocaeans, r 13&n Phorkyade, 749 physics, microphysics, and complex psychology, 4 72, 473 Pieron, H.: "La Theorie des emotions et les donnees actuelles de Ia physiologie,'' 42 In Pilcz, Alexander: Lehrbuch der speziellen Psychiatrie fur Studierende und Aerzte, J.'s review, 384 pioneer work, 52 I Pirke Eliezer, 674 piscina, n6, I I7 "Pitch-birds''jPechvogel, 23 Pithecanthropus, 214 Pius, Roman bishop, I I 6 Pius XI. Pope. 759n; Encyclical: Casti Connubii, 759&n, 8o9&n

Pius XII, Pope: Apostolic Constitution, 68rn, 742n Plato, 280, 3 I 5 Pleroma, 670 Plokker, J. H., 826n pneuma, 155 poetry, Freudian type of, 765, 766 Poimen, Shepherd, in vision of Hermas, 1 I6 poisonings, 38 I Poldinger, \\"alter: "Zur Bedeutung bildernischen Gestaltens in der psychiatrischen Diagnostik," 8o2n Polia, 545 Poliphilo, see under Colonna politeness, archaic, 20 political economy, 355 politics, s64, 565, 567 poltergeists, 294 Polynesians, 240 Pompey, 554 Pope: private blessing for J., 271, 272; see also Boniface VIII; Pius XI; Pius XII population, over-, 260, 261 Porphyry, r I 7 Portugal, 554 possession, 599; demonic, 228; states of, 374 Pototsky, - : "Die \' erwertbarkeit des Assoziations\'ersuches fur die Beurteilung der traumatischen Neurosen," J.'s abstract, 4I4 power complex, see complex(es) s.v. powers, supreme. 733, 734 prayer, 68I, 682 prejudices, positi\·e or negative, 253 Priapus, stele of, in Verona, 444 Price, Harry. 575&n; An Account of Some Further Experiments u:ith Willy Schneider, 575n; The Phenomena of Rudi Schneider, 575n priests: Catholic, trained as psychotherapists, 287; \·s. doctor, consulted for psychological trouble, 268; as sacrifice, 27+ primitiw ~ s) : anger in, 24; consciousness in, IO. 3I6: and dreams, 85,

INDEX I I I , 19'2, 193, '285, 286, 556, 557; and initiation rites, 157; and intuition, 15; loss of numinosity in, 254; meaning of ceremonies, 240; and monotony, 614; and pain, 104; politeness of, 20; psyche unsynthesized in, I94; psychology, I I, 42, 159, 192, 354, 553-56, 562, 563; and sexual intercourse, 128; and snake, 125; soul among, 24; storytellers, 24 7, 248; superstitions of, 24 r; thinking of, 1o, 204 primitivity in mner world of man, 256 privati a bani, 682, 689, 709, 7 I o, 712, 7I4, 7I5, 726 progress, age of, 583 projection, I 3 6, I 3 7; of archaic personality, 577; of archetypes, see archetype(s) s.v.; and Christ, see Christ; in dream-analysis, 220; of emotional contents, I 38; of fatherimage, I59Âˇ J6o, 277, 577i impersonal, 155, 160, I6I; integration of, 3 I 6; mutual, 140; mythological forms of, 5 77; of personal images, I 6o; an unconscious mechanism, I 3 7, I 38; withdrawal of, 593, 668; prophecy, 295, 296, 298; and hallucination, 461 prophets, frenzy of, 596 pro portio sesquitertiajratio of 3: I, 473. 476 prostitution, 384 Protestantism, 7 1 I; and care of souls, 6o2; God in, 729; and integration of psychological experience, 73 2; ritual life of, 273; splitting of into new denominations, 273; uncertainty of, 273 Protestants, 23 I, 246, 263, 7 I4; and Holy Spirit, 68o; neurosis among, 284; as patients, I 62; - , complexes among, see complexes s.v.; and self-knowledge, 8r6 Provenc:;al, I I 5 Provence, I I 7

providentia Dei, 684 Przywara, Erich, 68g; Deus semper maior, 68gn pseudologia phantastica, 596, 604 psychanalysis, 388; see also psychoanalysis psyche, 34 7n; American, 3 I 6; basic function of, 166; and biological causality, 466; "comparative anatomy" of, 228; and consciousness, see consciousness s.v.; dissociability of, 195, 664; and geographical locality, 465; as historical structure, 356; and loss of moral and spiritual values, 255; man's greatest danger, 320; man's greatest instrument, 263; and matter, 3 I 4; not a tabula rasa, 235; not atom, is primary, 349; as object and subject, 7, I26; objective, 665, 763; of patient, 349, 355; phenomenology of, 309; prehistoric, identity with, 259; primitive, loss of, 258; primordial, I I I; reality of, 35 I, 665, 666; relation to physiology and biology, 385; study of, 5; and sympathetic system, 464; theological devaluation of, 73 I; and time and space, 287; unconscious, 7, 36, 78, 193; undervaluation of, 263 psychiatrist/alienist, 349, 350, 352; and patients' psychology, 356; and psychological aspect of his cases, 356 psychiatry, 354, 355, 367, 368, 372, 373, 375; and documentary evidence, 350; Freud's importance for, 388; German, 403; judicial, 386 psychic reality, 35 I "psychic smells," 326 psychoanalysis: and empirical evidence, 424; goal of, 395; and morality, 395; "wild," 425 psychoanalytic training, need for, 424 Psychoanalytic Congresses: First, Salzburg, 335n, 392; Second, Nur-

INDEX

Psychoanalytic Congresses (cant.) : em berg, 423&n, 426, 55 w; Third, \\'eimar, 423n, 446n psychodiagnostics, 63 7 psychogalvanic effect, 26, 27 psychography /automatic writing, 302, 304, 337 psychoid(s), 683, 705; factor, soB psychological institute, Bern, 333 psychologism, 559, 705, 729 psychology/psychologist (s) : aca· demic, 249, 460, 559; of the ages, 133; analytical, 563; of ancient Egyptians, 103; chaos in, 127; collective, I 63; comparative, 539; compartment, I 53, 242; of consciousness, 7i empirical, 309, 56I, 569, 664; -, and Holy Spirit, 6go; English, g; exile, 282; experimental, 307; and factor of value, 26o; and feeling, I4i four-dimensional, 59; French, see France/ French s.v.; German, I2i Hindu, see Hindu s.v.; introspective, 67; medical, 6; medieval, I 63; modem, 7, IOJ, 316, 599, 6Io, 617; national and racial, 565; and national problems, 566-8 I j needs widening of its horizon, 320; normal, 375; objective, I 25; pathological, 353, 354i philosophical, 242; and philosophy, 773-75; practical, I g; prirmtlve, see primitive (s) s.v.; public interest in, 6Io; as real life adventure, 249; the science of the future, 589; of the statement, 3°7 psychopath, Hitler as, 6os psychopathology, 6, 353, 376 psychophysical parallelism, 34, 65 psychosis, 353, 383; aetiology of, 38 I; affective, 365 (see also manic· depression); autochthonous descriptions, 350; classification of, 3 79, 386; and collective unconscious, 484; confusional, 32; motility, see catatonia; mythological fragments in, 259; outbreak of,

355; psychology of, 349, 65 I; see also insanity; schizophrenia psychosomatic medicine, 355, 357 psychosynthesis, 398, 399 psychotherapists: physical illness among, I 54; priests trained as, 287 psychotherapy, 223, 390; aims of, 3 I 6; a craft, I 26; description of, 6o6; as dialectical discussion with the unconscious, 664, 667; and emotions of patient, I 38; goal of, 8Ig; hypnotic, 378 puberty, 233; rites, I57 Pueblo Indians, see American In· dians s.v. purusha, 828; Elijah as, 675 Pythagoras, 674 Pythagoreans, 203

Q quaternity: alchemical, 717; Catholic, 712, 714; devil/Satan as fourth member, 7I2, 732; divine, 232; and Godhead, 715; and shadow, -7q; as symbol of psychic totality, 473; totality as, 688, 713; Trinity and, 688; as unity, 7 I 3 Quest, the, 285. 289 quinariusjquiniojquincunx, 712, 7I3 Quisling, \'idkun, 604 Quispel, Gilles, 65 I &n, 671 n, 826n; 'Tragic Christianity," J.'s foreword to, 65 I-53

R races, study of, 4 7 racial inheritance, 3 7 radioactivity, 541 Rahner, Hugo, 485 railways, 308&n Rank, Otto, 446n, 485, 551 n; ed. Imago, 425n rapport between doctor and patient,

INDEX

144, 168, 224, 225 Rasmussen, Knud, 286; Across Arctic America, 286n rationalism, 273, 705; materialistic, 743; and superstition, complementary, 318 rationality, 3 I 8 Ravenna, 761 reaction time, prolongation of, 49 redeemer, 38, 743 reductio in primam figuram, 84, 85 reduction to infantile material, 435, 436 Rees, ]. R., I 35 regression, 431, 57o&n; infantile, I 59; into history, j ?{; national, 573 Reibmayer, Albert: Die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Talentes und Genies, J.'s review, 385-86 Reichhardt, M.: Leitfaden zur psychiatrischen Klinik, J.'s review, 378-?9 Reith, Marian, 692n relativism, 7 relativity, theory of, 68 relativization of moral values, 233 religio medici, 64 I religion, I 67; an absolute experience, 289; anaemia of, 26I; archetypes and, 5 rg; comparative, 354; and creed, distinction, 724, 725; cultural symbols in, 253; Fascism as, 165; future, 277; as mental hygiene, 698; "psychologizing" of, 659; psychology of, 474, 476; as psychotherapeutic systems, I 62, 519, 658, 699; and science, conflict, 289; symbols in, 212; \\·orld, 246 religious: conversion, 259; development, 267 Renaissance, 545, 736 Rene d'Anjou, 545, 759 reparation, of the collective, 452 representations, "dim," 7 (Levyrepresentations collectives

Bruhl;, 201, 228, 233, 238, 253; origins of, 240; of religions, 728; symbols as, 212 repression, 188, 4 78, 4 79 respectability, 684 Revault d'Ailones, G.: ·'L'Explication physiologique de !'emotion," 421n revelation. new, 267 Rheinau Sanatorium (Canton Zurich;, 417 Rhine, J. B., 319, 4 73, 499, 500, 504; .\"CZ£' Frontiers of the .\Jind, 313n; The Reach of the Mind, 313n Rhodesia: prehistoric sun-wheel mandalas of, 39&n, 5 I 6 Richet, Alfred. 31-1 Rickert, Heinrich, 771 &n Ricksher, Charles, 27n right and left, in John (Acts of Peter), 735&n Riklin, Franz, 429; J.'s abstracts: '"Analytische Cntersuchungen der Symptome und Assoziationen eines Falles \·on Hysterie," 416-q; '"Beitrag zur Psychologic der kataleptischen Zustande bei Katatonie," 418-Ig; '"Die diagnostische Bedeutung von Assoziationsversuchen bei H ysterischen," 41 7; '·Hebung epileptischer Amnesien durch Hypnose," 4 I 5; '"Kasuistische Beitrage zur Kenntnis hysterischer Assoziationsphanomene," 410; "Psychologic und Sexualsymbolik der l\1archen," 419; 'Tber Gefangnispsychosen," 4 I 9; "Dber Versetzungsbesserungen," 417; Wunscherfullung und Symbolik im J.Jiirchen, 419; "Zur Psychologic hysterischer Dammerzustande und des Ganserschen Symptoms," 4I5; -unpublished lecture on omnipotence of thoughts, 445n Rippon, T. S., 287 rite de sortie, 595 Ritschl, Albrecht, 739&n

Sgs

INDEX

ritual: of life, 273; psychology of, 271 Robert I, the Wise, 797 Roberts, William A., 634; "Analysis and Faith," 634n Roman Catholic Church, see Catholic Church Romantic Movement, 294, 771, 772, 775 Rome/Roman (s) : Mithraeum, I 17; pestilence in, I I 6; psychic change in, 554; Senate, I I I; Tarpeian rock, I I 7 Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 575&n Roques, Hedwig von, see Beit Rosarium philosophorum, 797-800 rose, mystic, 759 Rosenbach,-, 379 Rosencreutz, Christian: Chymische Hochzeit, 748 Rosenthal, Hugo, 768, 825n; ''Der Typengegensatz in der jiidischen Religionsgeschichte," 768n ''Rosinus ad Sarratantam," Boo Ross, T. A., I 29 Rothe, Frau, 302 Rouma, Georges: "Un cas de mythomanie, Contribution a !'etude du mensonge et de Ia fabulation chez !'enfant," 42 In Ruach, Elohim, 592, 687 Russia, I88, 569, 58o; Freudian psychology in, 398n; primitivity of, 2 54

s Saal burg, I I 7 Sachs, Hanns: ed. Imago, 425n sacrifice: of Christ, 275, 276; of god of spring, 446; of phallus, in ancient cults, 446; priest as, see priest; problem of, 434, 436 sacrificial symbols in Negroes' dreams, 552&n sacrificium intellectus, 728 Sadger, Isidor: Konrad Ferdinand

Meyer, Eine pathographisch-psychologische Studie, J.'s review, 336-38 St. Moritz, I 29 Salpetriere school, 5 I 5 Salzburg, see Psychoanalytic Congresses s.v. First samadhi, 620 Samyutta-1\'ikaya, 3I In San Clemente Church, Rome, I I 7 Sanskrit, 67, 82, q8 Sans Souci, 2 I I Saoshyant, 676 sarcomatosis, case of, 58 sarcophagus, vision of, 758 Satan, see devil/Satan saviour: complex, see complex s.v.; expectation, I6I sayings of Jesus, see Christ s.v. Scandinavian mythology, 92 scapegoats, 97 Schaer, Hans, 474; Erlosungsvorstellungen und ihre psychologischen Aspekte, 474n; Religion and the Cure of Souls in Jung's Psychology, 474n Scharf (-Kluger), Riwkah, 825n; ''Die Gestalt Satans im Alten Testament"/Satan in the Old Testament, 649&n, 7I In Schelling, F.\\'.]. von: on ''eternal unconscious," 477, 5I5 Schemer, K. A., 36I Schiaparelli, Giovanni, 3 I 4 Schiller, Johann Christoph Friedrich von, 30; in servant-girl's hallucinations, 298 schizophrenia/dementia praecox, 335â&#x20AC;˘ 353-55; and association experiment, 54, 353; and collective contents of the unconscious, 483; complexes in, 72; and cure, 10 I ; and demonism, 648; diagnosis of, 385; dissociation in, I oo; ego split in, I I; fantasies in, and historical parallels, 446; Freud's theory and, 388, 389; hallucinations in, 389; and hysteria, 406; neologisms, 349;

8g6

INDEX

organic factor in, 335; paintings in, 1]6, I 77; patient's vision, 41; personality changes in, 12; psychology of, 354; regional variations in diagnosis, 384; splinter-complexes in, 482; unconscious in, 353; uncultivated deserts of, 371; world in state of, 254 Schleich, Carl Ludwig: Those Were Good Days, 462n; Die Wunder der Seele, J.'s foreword, 462-66 Schloss, Jerome, J.'s memorial, 757 Schmaltz, Gustav: Komplexe Psychologic und korperliches Symptom, J.'s foreword, 357-58; Ostliche Weisheit und westliche Psychotherapie, 664n Schmid-Guisan, Hans, 825n; J.'s In Memoriam, 760-61; Tag und Nacht, 761; J.'s foreword, 759-6o Schmitz, Oskar A. H.: Miirchen aus dem Unbewussten, J.'s foreword, 762-64 Schneider brothers, 575 Schneiter, C., 825n Schnyder, - : Definition et nature de l'hysterie, J.'s abstract, 419 scholasticism, 463 Schopenhauer, Arthur, 168, 213, 515, s6o, 788; on sanctity, 294; on "unconscious will," 477; Parerga und Paralipomena, 294; The World as Will and I de a, 294n Schreber, Daniel Paul: Memoirs of My Nervous Illness, 667-68 Schrenck-Notzing, Albert von, 341&n Schubert, Gotthilf Heinrich von, 361 Schulinus (Johann Heinrich Schuelin) : De Elia corvorum alumno, 674 Schumann, - , Professor, 333 Schiirer, Emil: "Zur Vorstellung von der Besessenheit im Neuen Testament," 648 Schwarzwald, - : "Beitrag zur Psyder hysterischen chopathologie

Dammerzustande und Automatismen," J.'s abstract, 420 Schweitzer, Albert, 680-82, 697n Schweizer Gesellschaft fiir Psychiatrie, 461n Schweizerischer Beobachter, 327 Schweizer Lexikon, J.'s article in, 648n science: authority of, 466; as power for good or ill, 598, 599; psychic consequences of, 594, 595; and religious experience, 289, 738 scintilla, self as, 725, 734 seances, educated people and, 3 I 9 Seif, Leonhard, 423&n sejunction theory (Wernicke), 376 self: as archetype, 484, 694, 725, 734; city as synonym for, 122; Elijah as, 675; in four dimensions, 6o; -interest, 587; -knowledge, 588, 8I8, 819; Joss of, 24; realization of, 694, 695; seeks consciousness, 72 I; symbols of, and symbols of Deity, 7I9; theological aspect of, 659; as totality of man, 7 I 9 sensation: extinction of, 3 70, 3 7 I; function, 12-I4, 16-r8, 28, 43, 219; type, I8, I9 sense-perceptions, subliminal, I99 sensitiveness, intensification of, 50 Serrano, Miguel: The Visits of the Queen of Sheba, J.'s foreword, 788 sex: and neurosis, I 28; pathology of, 380 sexual: concretism, 434; ethics, 384; misdemeanours, 393; morality, natural/cultural, 384; mysteries, 445 sexuality: biological conception of, 429; and neurosis, 388 shadow, 280, 484, 62o; assimilation of, 708, 7 I o; compensatory significance of, 6I 7; confrontation with, 728; destructive, 254; in Gnosticism, 7I6; integration of, 6I9; and Iron Curtain, 245; living one's own, 23; loss of, 23; our own, 245; projection of, I 6o; -side, 24, 22 I; in Trinity, 7 I 6, 74 I; -world, 21

INDEX

Shakti, I20 shamanism, 253&n, 648 Shaw, George Bernard:

ft,f an

and Su-

perman, I 64&n Shiva, I20, I8I Shunamite, 675 Sicily, see Messina sight, second, 328 Silberer, Herbert, 435; Problems of

Mysticism

and

Its

Symbolism,

753n; ''Ober die Symbolbildung," 435n; ''Von den Kategorien der Symbolik," 435n similia similibus curantur, 6 Simon the Essene, 108, 109 Simon Magus, I o8, 545 simulation, 375 sin, original/ peccatum originale, 687 Sisyphus, labour of, 6oi Skolts, Lappish, of Finland, 783 sleep: magnetic, 295; ''waking," 295 Socialism, 5 73, 5 79 society, individual's separation from, 453 Society for Freudian Researches, Zurich, 334 Society for Psychotherapy, 639, 640 Soho, 70 Sol, and Luna, I20 sola fide, 738 somnabulism ( -ists), 295, 296, 3I7, 340, 374; hallucinations in, 46I Son, as intermediary between Father and Holy Spirit, 688 Son of Man, 829 soothsaying, 296 Sophia, 689 Sophocles, I r r, 11 z; Sophoclis Fabulae, ed. Pearson, I I 2n Sorbonne, 52 sorcerer, rs6 sorcery, 328 Sorokin, Pitirim A., 638n soul: bush-, 194, 205; and collective function, 454; cure of, 602, 669; daily need of, z 74; existence of, after death, 309; language of, 284;

lonely, 276; loss of, 46, 194, I95Âˇ 277; paradoxical, 689; part-, 309; problem of, 558; spiritual development of, 689; vision of, rising from sarcophagus, 758; world-, 464; - , sparks of, 59I sound, as oscillations, 9 Southwark, Bishop of (Richard Parsons), z8I-8{, 286, 289 space and time: an illusion, 287; as limiting factors, 3ISi and psychic totality, 695; relativation of, 3I3, 3I9, 473, 475, 5II, 696; unconscious independent of, 3 IS Spain, r I2, I I6, IZZ, 554, 579 speech, modern, 255 Spencer-Brown, G., 496; "Statistical Significance m Psychical Research," 496n Speyr, - von, Professor, 444n Spier, Julius: The Hands of Children, J.'s foreword, 8zo-zi spirit(s): aim of, 3I4i archetype, 649; communicating with, 293, 3I3i of the departed, as personified unconscious content, 3 I 4; existence of, 313; God as, 155; happiness in, 583, s84; and matter, split between, 733; as psychic phenomena, 312 spiritism, 293n; see also spiritualism spiritualism, 73, 293-307, 3 I 2, 648; American, 299, 3I4; compensatory significance of, 3I4; dual nature of, 293; and ionization investigation, 66o; physical phenomena in, 306; primitive projection in, 3I6; reality of phenomena in, 307, 3I9i a religious belief, 293 spiritualists, 302, 306, 308 sj!iritus, 155 Spiritus Sanctus, I58; see also Holy Ghost spittle, magical effect of, 240 springs of water, 1 1 7 Stalin, Joseph, 575 star: over Bethlehem, 5 76; of David,

8g8

INDEX

7 I 6; red, of Russia, s 76 State: belief in, 744; as ghost, S7276, s 79, 580; as highest authority, 6gs; personification of, s 78 Stein, Philipp: ''Tatbestandsdiagnostische Versuche bei Untersuchungsgefangenen," J.'s abstract, 4 I I Steiner, Rudolf, 68I Stekel, Wilhelm, 39on; Nerviise Angstzustande und ihre Behandlung, J.'s review, 390, 39 I; ed. with A. Adler, Zentralblatt fur Psychoanalyse, 42sn stella matutina, 226 Stenia festival, I 2 In Stern, William, 307&n Stoll, Otto: Suggestion und Hypnotismus in der Viilkerpsychologie, 648 Strack, H. L., and Paul Billerbeck: Kommentar zum Neuen Testament, 67s Strauss, E. B., 29, 57, s8, 6o, 62, 63, I33. I34 subject and object: of equal importance, 6I I; oneness of, 42; psyche as, 7 subliminality, 222 suffering, 697-99 Sufism, S4sn suggestibility, 370-72; during sleep (Moll), 377 suggestion, 6os; definition of, 3 77; under hypnosis, 699; and masses, 610; method, 29s; therapy, 340, 603 suicide, 260 Summis desiderantes, Papal Bull, 607 Summum Bonum, 72 I; as Christ's father, 7 I 7; and dark side, 734; God as, see God; Three/trinity as, 7 I 2; victims of, 72S sun: Father, 247, 274, 288; -god, I2I; -image, archetypal, 39; -wheel, 39, 95, I 86; - , in paleolithic (?) Rhodesian rock-drawings, 39&n; worshippers: Elgonyi, 24o; - ,

Pueblo Indians, Io Sunday Referee, 343n Superman, s 78, 5 79, 6oo superstition, 327; of modern man, 24I Supreme Being, 246 Sutras: Amitayur Dhyana Sutra, 739 Suttie, Ian, 6o-62 Swahili, 240 swastika(s), 569, 576; as mandala, S78 Swedenborg, Emanuel, 297&n, 299 Switzerland/Swiss, I 6 I; at battle of St. Jacob, 87; dialect, 23; and freedom, s8o; frontier, in dream, ISO; and Great War, 46; and harvest blessing, I 78; journey from, in dream, 86; national character/temperament, I27, 328, 585-87, 596; village, in dream, 79 sword, ancient, in dream, I I 3 Sylvester, St., I I 7 symbol ( s) : interpretation of, 22s; natural vs. cultural, 253; as natural products, 2 I I; religious, 244-s2, 82 7; and reunion of opposites, 2s9; and sign, differentiated, 2 I 2 symbolic life, need for, 273, 274 symbolism: of collective unconscious, 38; of manners, 2o; mythological, 240; Oriental, 67; study of, 264; taking refuge in, 282 symbolum, 7I9 sympathetic system, I34, 464; animal symbols of, 1 79 symptom, definition of, 568 synchronicity, 34, 69, 3 I 9, 49 I, 6ss, 6g6; and archetypes, 500, SO I, 508; and astrology, 497. 504, 506; J.'s letter to Fierz on, so2-7; and statistical material, 494 syncretism: Hellenistic-Asiatic, S54; Jewish, 652

T table-turning, 294-96, 299, 302, 304 Tabor, transfiguration on, 674

8gg

INDEX

Tacitus: Historiae, 674 Tagus river, I I 2 Talmud, 83, 248 Tantalus Club, 445 Tantra chakra, 578 Tantric(-ism), 95, 120; J.'s semmar on, 707&n; mandala in, 578; philosophy, 553i Yoga, I I, ji6 Tao, 6g, I Ig, 667, 717; and Christ, contrasted, 73 7; as dyadic monad, 715; and opposites, cooperation of, 7I9; as self, 720 Taoist, 68 Tao-te-ching ( Lao-tzu), 539n Tarpeian rock, I I 7 Tausk, Victor, 433-37, 433n Tavistock Clinic, see Institute of Medical Psychology Tavistock Institute of Human Relations, 6o6n teacher, and shadow, 485 tcam-spmt, 585-87 technology, effect of, on psyche, 614, 6I5 telepathic phenomena, 15 temenos, I 23, I 78, I 79 Temple, Frederick, Archbishop, 679 temple: in magic circle, 178; prostitution rite in Babylon, 159 Terence: Heauton Timorumenos, 45n tertium comparationis, 364, 653 Tertullian: De jnaescriptione hereticorum, 676 tetrad, God as, 7 I 5 Tetrarch of Palestine, roB Thayer, Ellen, 654n Theatrum chemicum, 753n theologoumenon, 743 theology: and the practical man, 268; and primordial images, 7 I 6; and psychology, 354, 716, 742, 743 Theosebeia, 545 theosophy, 554; primitive projection in, 3I6 Therapeutai, 108 therapist, character of, 439; see also analyst; doctor

Therese of Konnersreuth (Therese Neumann), 66o&n Thesmophoria, r 2 1n thinking: in the belly, 10; function, I2, 13, I6, 17, 43, 2Ig; in the heart, r o; mechanistic, 316; of primitives, IOj subliminal, 461; type, see type s.v.; see also thought(s) thirteen, 256 Thomas Aquinas, St., 688; Summa theologica, 688n Thomist philosophy, 475 Thompson, R. Campbell: The Epic of Gilgamish, 105n thought ( s) : a late discovery, 24 I; -patterns, collective, 234; see also thinking three plus one, 713, 732, 74I; ratio/ pro portio sesquitertia, 4 73, 4 76 Thury, Professor, see Cassini Tiamat, dragon in Babylonian myth, I05 Tibetan philosophy, 95 Tifereth, 738 time machine, 28 time and space, see space and time timelessness, and realization of self, 6g4 Tiresias, 38 Toledo, 121, 122; cathedral, II2-I5 Toletum, 114 tongue, slips of, 532 totalitarianism, 596, 659 totality: Eastern apperception of, 655; as four, 715; image of, g; of man, I 22; psychic, and quatemity symbol, 473; as three, 715 tractability, 37 I, 372 trance: and demonism, 648; speakmg in, 302, 304 transcendence, prayer and, 681 transcendent function, 6go transference, I 34-3 7, 4 72, 492, 5 77; aetiology of, 143; in alchemy, 753i to animals, 14I; and archetypes, 164, 486; collapse of, I42i as compensation, I 68; counter-, qo, 142,

goo

INDEX

ISO; as dialogue between partners, 493; dreams in, see dreams s.v.; erotic, I 4 I; father, I 6o, 2 77; Freud on, 480, 486; heightened, 451, 452; as hindrance, rsi; intensity of, I42, 152; mutual unconsciousness in, I49; neurosis, 48o; as projection, I36-38, ISI, I52, ISS; teleological value of, I 68; therapy of, I 54, I 6o transformation, in alchemy, 59I transubstantiation, 591 Transvaal, 39n transvestism, 34 7-48 trauma theory, 430 treasure, I 66; in the depths, I I 8; integration of, I52; singular feeling as, 329; in transference, I43 treatment, reductive, 224 tree ( s) : fig-tree, 646; of knowledge, 6o3; of Life, 675; symbol: and Christ, 239; - , of Great Mother, 239 tremors, intended, 303 triad: and Kepler's astronomy, 473; lower/inferior, 7I3, 732 Trinity: as archetype, 99; devil/Satan as fourth in, see devil s.v.; man as part of, 687, 689; and Mary as fourth, 68I, 687, 689, 7I2, 7I4; masculine, 99, 689, 7I4, 733, 741; and psychological viewpoint, 649; and quatemity, 688; shadow of, 7I6, 74I; as symbol, 7I4 Tripitaka, 730 Tripus aureus, 749 truth: eschatological, 6 I 8; experience of, 558; how we know it, 288; relative or absolute, 703 Turbo, 748 twilight states, 302; hysterical, 4I5, 416 Tylor, E. B., 562 type ( s) : attitude-, 4 7 I, 483; classification into, 220; complex-constellation, 407; and dream-analysis, 2 I 7, 2 I 8; function-, 2 I 9, 4 7 I, 534; m-

tellectual, 20; predicate, 407; thinking, q, 43. s6 typology, psychological, 4 7 I typos (imprint), 37 Die Tyroler ekstatischen Jungfrauen (anon.), 295n Tyrrell, G.N.M.: The Personality of Man, 313n

u illiwp 8â&#x201A;Źiov ( hudor theion), 59 I L'fosjftying saucers, 626-33; and American Air Force, 627, 632, 633; extra-terrestrial origin of, 628, 629, 632; Flying Saucer Review, 626n; in history, 63 I; and parapsychological processes, 628, 63o; as psychic phenomenon, 626, 630, 63 I; as symbols, 626 Ulysses, 38 Unamuno, Miguel de, s8I&n unconscious (the) : ambivalence/two aspects of, 682, 683; apprehension, 305, 306; capriciousness of, 306; and Christ-phenomenon, 828; combination, 305; continuous, g; as creative matrix of consciousness, 482; deliberations of, 237; depreciation of, 206; different conceptions of, 62, I 24; discovery of, 3 I 7; as dustbin of the conscious mind, 2o6; empirical approach to, 477; energic charge of, 353; energy of, compared with consciousness, 3I4, 3IS; extent of, unknown, 3 I 6; goodwill of, 235; has no known limits, 738; has no time, 287; integration of, 695; interventions of, 249; as land of dreams, 315; language of, 279, 285; localization of, 3I9; in manic state, 35 I; meaning of term, 8; message of, 207; neutrality of, 704; physiological aspect of, 6o7; powers of, 665; powers of perception of, 326; problems, exteriorization of, 3 2 2; religious aspect of, 70 r; Satan as

gox

INDEX

unconscious (the) (cont.) : representative of, 732; in schizophrenia, is dreamlike, 353; spectral world of, 318; and subliminal perceptions, 313; symbolic language of, 356; symbol-producing, 262, 279; a treasure-house of lost memories, 313 unconscious, collective, 4 I, 482, 483; activation of, 161, 162, 164; and anima, see anima s.v. personification; archetypes and, 38; children's awareness of, 95; contents of, 37; - , activated, 46; discovery of, 472; Elijah as, 675; in Germans, 573; and Gnosticism, 652, 664; and mutation of dominant ideas, 485; and nations, 5 n; patient's, onslaught of, 153; and primitive psychology, 553, 554; processes of, 6; - , and mystics, g8; and psychosis, 484; regulating influence of, 486; symbolism in, 38; as totality of archetypes, 682 unconscious, personal, 37, 484, 515; contents of, 57' 58; is relative, 45Âˇ 58 unconscious and consciousness: collaboration, 235; consciousness arises from, 1o; conscious surrounded by sea of unconscious, 3 I 5; com pensating, 62!' 655, 65 7, 704; in Freud's theory, 515; independent and opposed, 515; as nonsense and sense, 262; relative importance of, 704; united, 120, 122 unconscious contents: autonomous, 515; emotionality of, 258; fascination of, 74; in Freud's theory, 479; integration of, with consciousness, 6o6, 613, 618; origin of, 656; projection of, 316 unconscious mind: and compensation of conscious attitude, 6o6; as matrix of conscious mind, 6o7; products of, 8; storehouse of relics, 4 I; ' structure of, 6 unconscious processes, 36; compen-

satory function of, 482; exteriorization of, 319; investigation of, 7; teleological character of, 482 unconsciousness: in our civilization, 45; mutual, 140; through mutual contamination, see contamination s.v.; original condition of, 120; as treasure, I 20 underworld: psychic, 254; and water, 117, 123 Unesco (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) : Second General Conference, 6o6n; J.'s memorandum to, 6o6I3; Royaumont Conference, 6o6n universe, unobstructed, 315 Urstein, M.: Die Dementia praecox und ihre Stellung zum manischdepressiven lrresein, J.'s review, 385 U rsulines of London, 648

v Valens, Emperor, 296 Valentinus (Gnostic), 727,826 value: feeling and, I3; idea of, 5; reactivation of, 453; subjective, of transÂŁ erence, I 54, I 6o Varendonck, J.: ''Les ideals des enfants," 42In vase, in patient's drawing, 176, I79 Venus, 444 Veraguth, Otto, 339&n Verena, St., 444 V espasian, 67 4 vessel, 12 I; as container, I 76-78; ideas as, 31 o; motif, as archetypal image, I76 Society, Psychoanalytic Vienna 423&n, 425n Vigouroux, A., and Juquelier, P.: "Contribution clinique a l'etude des deli res du reve," 42 In Virgil: Eclogue V, I65n Virgin birth: in alchemy, 59 I; and rationalization, 27I virginity, secret of, 27 I

INDEX

Vischer, Friedrich Theodor, 6I9 Visigoths, I I4 vision(s), 295, 298; collective, 626, 630; dying man's, of sarcophagus, 758; of female saints, 298; as morbid symptoms, 205; of Paul on road to Damascus, 298; of professor, repeated in old woodcut, 229; and Resurrection, 693; of schizophrenic patient, 4I; warning, 327 visionaries, 298 vita somnium breve, 233 vocation, prophetic experience of, 696 Vodoz, J., 825n Vogt, Oskar, 34I&n Vogt, Ragnar, 3 77 voices, heard by the insane, 3 I 2 volition, 370, 375 Volkelt, J., 36I voyeurism, 394

w Wagner, Richard, 546; Flying Dutchman, I59; Parsifal, I I8, I20, 742 Waldstein, Louis: Das Unbewusste I ch/The Subconscious Self, J.'s review, 339-42 Walser, Hans H.: "An Early Psychoanalytical Tragedy," 426n Walton, Robert C., 744n wand, as dream symbol, 86, 92, 93 war: wish for, 274; World War I, 5 67, 5 68 water: divine, rite of, 2 70; healing, 749; and unconscious, I 18; and underworld, I I 7, I 23 Wehrlin, K.: "Ober die Assoziationen von Imbezillen und Idioten," J.'s abstract, 407, 408 Welfare State, 245 Welles, Orson, 627n Wells, Herbert George: The Time Machine, 28; The War of the Worlds, 62 7&n Weltanschauung: Christian, 1 I 6; of Middle Ages, I IS; need for, 698

Weltwoche, 625n, 626n Wernicke, Carl, 378, 382; Grundriss der Psychiatrie in klinischen Vorlesungen, J.'s review, 376 West/western: Christian tradition in, 23 I; civilization, 245; consciousness, 245; and Iron Curtain, 244, 245; unease of, 254 wheel, as sun-symbol, 95, I86 White, Betty, medium, 3I3-I6 White, Richard (of Basingstoke), 545 White, Stewart Edward, 3 I 2n; Across the Unknown, 3I4n; The Betty Book. 3 qn, 3 I 6; The Road I Know, 3 qn; The Unobstructed Universe/ c-Âˇ neingeschriinktes Wellall, 3 r 2&n, 314; - , J.'s foreword to German trans., 3 I 2-16 White, Victor, 4 74, 7 I o; God and the Unconscious, 4 74n, 708 White House, 2 I 9 wholeness, 62 I; meaning of, I 23; of symbol-producing individual, 250; as unconscious fact, 686; unconscious tendency toward, 655 \Vhyte, Lancelot Law: The Unconscious before Freud, 477n Wickes, Frances G., 474; The Inner World of Childhood, 474n, 6Ign; Inner World of Man, 6r3n; Von der inneren Welt des Mens chen, J.'s foreword, 527-28 Wilhelm, Richard, 68, 4 72, 485, 553&n; The Secret of the Golden Flower, 68n, 553&n will: and control of functions, I 6; free, 2 I, 658; fulfilment of, 28 I; -power, q; - , of complexes, 72; to power, of the East, 244 Willcox, A. R.: The Rock Art of South Africa, 39n Wilmann, - , 385 wise old man archetype, 484 wish-fulfilment, dream as, 363, 367, 479 witch: burning of, 318; -craft, 591; -hunts, 485, 6o7; warlocks and worricows, 256

INDEX

W. P., 474; Catholic Thought and Modern Psychology, 4 74n; Return to Reality, 4 74n Wittels, Fritz: Die sexuelle Not, J.'s

465; Kundalini, I2o, 5I6; Tantric, I I ' 515 yogi, 620

marginal notes on, 393-96 Wolff, Toni, 4; Einfuhrung in die

Witcutt,

Grundlagen der komplexen Psychologie, 474&n Wolfram von Eschenbach, 798 woman, masculine attitude in, 520 word(s): as fetish, 7Io; superstitious belief in, 625, 7IO work therapy, 4 I 7 world: dehumanized, 255; principle, male or female, 254; Soul, 464; - , sparks of, 59 I; Teacher, new mcarnation of, 267 Wotan, 749; and Germany, 576 \Vreschner, Arthur, 333&n Wright, Maurice B., 70 Wulffen, Erich: Der Sexualverbrecher, J. 's review, 397 Wundt, Wilhelm, 78&n, 370, 477, 773; association experiments of, 4 7 r

y YahwehjYHWH, 682, 6go; active principle of, 687; consciousness of, 718; Elijah and, 677; as monad, 7I5i moral and immoral, 709; opposites unconscious in, 7 I 6; paradoxical, 690 Yellow lees, David, I 24 Yoga, I 20; Chinese, 5 I 6; consciousness in, 72; Indian and Chinese,

Zeitschrift fur angewandte Psychologie und psychologische Sammelforschung, 333n Zen: see Buddhism s.v. Zentralblatt fur Psychoanalyse, 423n, 42s&n, SSin Zeus, 40 Ziegler, K. A. (bookseller) : Alchemie, 747n Zilboorg, Gregory, 634n Zimmer, Heinrich, 472, 485, 529 Zinzendorf, Count Nikolaus Ludwig von, 68I&n zodiac, sign of Leo, 121 Zollner, Friedrich, 314 Zoroaster, r 17 Zosimus of Panopolis, 545, 75I Zurcher Student, 614n, 637n Zurich, 49, 51, 67, I39, 30I; branch of the International Psychoanalytic Association, 423, 424; Eidgeni:issische Technische Hochschule/Federal Polytechnic (E.T.H.), 3, 5I5n, 6z4n, 615, 686n, 707; Psychoanalytic Society, 552n; Psychological Club, 748n, 779n, 797n; school of psychoanalysis, 381, 433n, 434; - , abstracts of works, 398-42 I; University Psychiatric Clinic, 333; see also Burghi:ilzli Mental Hospital Zwinglian Church, 273

THE COLLECTED \\'ORKS OF

C. G. JUNG

THE

PUBLICATION of the first complete edition, in English, of the works of C. G. Jung was undertaken by Routledge and Kegan Paul, Ltd., in England and by Bollingen Foundation in the United States. The American edition is number XX in Bollingen Series, which since 1967 has been published by Princeton University Press. The edition contains revised versions of works previously published, such as PS)Âˇchology of the Unconscious, which is now entitled Symbols of Transformation; works originally written in English, such as Psychology and Religion; works not previously translated, such as Aion; and, in general, new translations of virtually all of Professor Jung's writings. Prior to his death, in 1961, the author supervised the textual revision, which in some cases is extensive. Sir Herbert Read (d. 1968), Dr. Michael Fordham, and Dr. Gerhard Adler compose the Editorial Committee; the translator is R. F. C. Hull (except for Volume 2) and William McGuire is executive editor. The price of the volumes varies according to size; they are sold separately, and may also be obtained on standing order. Several of the volumes are extensively illustrated. Each volume contains an index and in most a bibliography; the final volumes will contain a complete bibliography of Professor Jung's writings and a general index to the entire edition. In the following list, dates of original publication are given in parentheses (of original composition, in brackets). Multiple dates indicate revisions.

•1.

PSYCHIATRIC STUDIES On the Psychology and Pathology of So-Called Occult Phenomena ( 1902) On Hysterical :-.risreading (1904) Cryptomnesia (1905) On ~Janie :\food Disorder (1903) A Case of Hysterical Stupor in a Prisoner in Detention (1902) On Simulated Insanity (1903) A :-.redical Opinion on a Case of Simulated Insanity (1904) A Third and Final Opinion on Two Contradictory Psychiatric Diagnoses ( 1906) On the Psychological Diagnosis of Facts (1905)

t2.

EXPERI.\!E:\'TAL RESEARCHES Translated by Leopold Stein in collaboration with Diana Riviere STL'DIES 1:'\ \\'ORO ASSOCIATIO:'\ (1904-7, 1910) The Associations of 1'\ormal Subjects (by Jung and F. Riklin) An Analysis of the .\ssociations of an Epileptic The Reaction-Time Ratio in the Association Experiment Experimental Observations on the Faculty of :-.remory Psychoanalysis and Association Experiments The Psychological Diagnosis of Evidence Association, Dream, and· Hysterical Symptom The Psychopathological Significance of the Association Experiment Disturbances in Reproduction in the Association Experiment The Association .\Iethod The Family Constellation

(1907-8) On the Psychophysical Relations of the Association Experiment Psychophysical Investigations with the Galvanometer and Pneumo· graph in ~ormal and Insane Individuals (by F. Peterson and PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES

Jung) Further Investigations on the Galvanic Phenomenon and Respiration in ~ormal and Insane Individuals (by C. Ricksher and Jung) Appendix: Statistical Details of Enlistment (1906); Criminal Psychology

~ew

Aspects of

(1908); The Psychological :\Iethods of

Investigation Used in the Psychiatric Clinic of the University of Zurich (1910); On the Doctrine of Complexes ([1911] 1913); On the Psychological Diagnosis of Evidence (1937) • Published 195i; 2nd edn., 1970.

t Published

1973.

•3. THE PSYCHOGE:'\ESIS OF ~~E~TAL DISEASE The Psychology of Dementia Praecox (1907) The Content of the Psychoses (1908/ 1914) On Psychological Understanding (1914) A Criticism of Bleuler's Theory of Schizophrenic l\'egativism (191 1) On the Importance of the Coconscious in Psychopathology (1914) On the Problem of Psychogenesis in :.\Tental Disease (1919) ::\tental Disease and the Psyche (1928) On the Psychogenesis of Schizophrenia ( 1939) Recent Thoughts on Schizophrenia (1957) Schizophrenia ( 1958)

t4· FREUD Al\'D PSYCHOA:'\ALYSIS Freud's Theory of Hysteria: A Reply to Aschaffenburg ( 1906) The Freudian Theory of Hysteria ( 1908) The Analysis of Dreams ( 1909) A Contribution to the Psychology of Rumour (1910-11) On the Significance of :'\umber Dreams (191D-11) :.\lorton Prince, "The :.\Iechanism and Interpretation of Dre;:.ms": A Critical ReYiew (1911) On the Criticism of Psychoanalysis (1910) Concerning Psychoanalysis (1912) The Theory of Psychoanalysis ( 1913) General Aspects of Psychoanalysis ( 1913) Psychoanalysis and ~eurosis (1916) Some Crucial Points in Psychoanalysis: A Correspondence between Dr. Jung and Dr. Loy (1914) Prefaces to "Colkcted Papers on Analytical Psychology" (1916, 1917) The Significance of the Father in the Destiny of the Individual (1909/ 1949) Introduction to Kranefeldt's "Secret \Vays of the :.\tind" (1930) Freud and Jung: Contrasts (1929) !5· SYMBOLS OF TRAl\'SFOR::\IATION (191 1-12j 1952) PART I

Introduction Two Kinds of Thinking The Miller Fantasies: Anamnesis The Hymn of Creation The Song of the :.\f oth • Published 1960. +Published 1961. ! Published 1956; 2nd edn., 1967. (65 plates, 43 text figures.)

(continued)

5· (continued) PART II

Introduction The Concept of Libido The Transformation of Libido The Origin of the Hero Symbols of the Mother and of Rebirth The Battle for Deliverance from the Mother The Dual Mother The Sacrifice Epilogue Appendix: The J\Jiller Fantasies •6. PSYCHOLOGICAL TYPES (1921) Introduction The Problem of Types in the History of Classical and Medieval Thought Schiller's Ideas on the Type Problem The Apollinian and the Dionysian The Type Problem in Human Character The Type Problem in Poetry The Type Problem in Psychopathology The Type Problem in Aesthetics The Type Problem in Modern Philosophy The Type Problem in Biography General Description of the Types Definitions Epilogue Four Papers on Psychological Typology (1913, 1925, 1931, 1936)

t7·

TWO ESSAYS ON ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY On the Psychology of the Unconscious (1917 f 1926/ 1943) The Relations between the Ego and the Unconscious (1928) Appendix: New Paths in Psychology (1912); The Structure of the Unconscious (1916) (new versions, with variants, 1966)

!8. THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE On Psychic Energy (1928) The Transcendent Function ([1916]/1957) A Review of the Complex Theory (1934) The Significance of Constitution and Heredity in Psychology (1929) • Published •97•·

! Published

1g6o; 2nd edn., tg6g.

t Published 1953; 2nd edn., 1g66.

Psychological Factors Determining Human Behavior (1937) Instinct and the Unconscious (1919) The Structure of the Psyche ( 1927 I 1931) On the Nature of the Psyche (194711954) General Aspects of Dream Psychology ( 1916 I 1948) On the Nature of Dreams (1945l 1948) The Psychological Foundations of Belief in Spirits (192011948) Spirit and Life (1926) Basic Postulates of Analytical Psychology ( 19~p) Analytical Psychology and Weltanschauung (1928/ 1931) The Real and the Surreal ( 1933) The Stages of Life (1931r-1931) The Soul and Death (1934) Synchronicity: An Acausal Connecting Principle (1952) Appendix: On Synchronicity (1951) •g.

PART 1. THE ARCHETYPES AND THE COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS Archetypes of the Collective Unconscious (1934/ 1954) The Concept of the Collective Unconscious (1936) Concerning the Archetypes, with Special Reference to the Anima Concept ( 1936/ 1954) Psychological Aspects of the Mother Archetype (1938/ 1954) Concerning Rebirth (1940/ 1950) The Psychology of the Child Archetype (1940) The Psychological Aspects of the Kore ( 1941) The Phenomenology of the Spirit in Fairytales (1945/ 1948) On the Psychology of the Trickster-Figure (1954) Conscious, Unconscious, and Individuation (1939) A Study in the Process of Individuation (1934/ 1950) Concerning Mandala Symbolism (1950) Appendix: Mandalas (1955)

•g.

PART II.

AION (1951)

llE.SEARCHES INTO THE PHENOMENOLOGY OF THE SELF

The Ego The Shadow The Syzygy: Anima and Animus The Self Christ, a Symbol of the Self The Sign of the Fishes

(continued)

• Published 1959; and edn., 1g68. (Part 1: 79 plates, with 19 in colour.)

(continued) The Prophecies of :\'ostradamus The Historical Significance of the Fish The .\mbi,·alence of the Fish Symbol The Fish in .-\Jchemy The Alchemical Interpretation of the Fish Background to the Psychology of Christian Alchemical Symbolism Gnostic Symbols of the Self The Structure and Dynamics of the Self Conclusion

•1o. Cl\'ILIZA TIO:\' I~ TRA~SITIO~ The Role of the l' nconscious ( 1918) :\lind and Earth (1927 / 1931) Archaic :\fan ( 1931) The Spiritual Problem of Modern :\!an (1928' 1931) The Lo'e Problem of a Student (1928) \\"oman in Europe (1927) The :\f eaning of Psychology for :\fodern :\Ian ( 1933 '1934) The State of Psychotherapy Today (1934) Preface and Epilogue to "Essays on Contemporary Events" (1946) \\" otan ( 1936) After the Catastrophe (1945) The Fight with the Shadow (1946) The l'ndiscovered Self (Present and Future) (195;) Flying Saucers: :\ :\fodern :'\.!yth (1958) A Psychological \'iew of Conscience ( 1958) Good and Evil in Analytical Psychology (1959) Introduction to Wolff's "Studies in Jungian Psychology" (1959) The Swiss Line in the European Spectrum (1928) Reviews of Keyserling's "America Set Free" (1930) and "La Revolution ~!ondiale" ( 1934) The Complications of American Psychology (1930) The Dreamlike \\'orld of India (1939) \\'hat India Can Teach L's (1939) Appendix: Documents (1933-1938) t11.

PSYCHOLOGY

A~D RELIGIO~:

WEST

A~D

EAST

\\ESTER:-: RELIGIO:-:

Psychology and Religion

(Th~:

Terry Lectures) (1938/ 1940)

• Published 1964; 2nd edn., 1g;o. (8 plates.) t Pul.J!i;hed 1958; 2nd edn., 1969.

A Psychological Approach to the Dogma of the Trinity (1942/1948) Transformation Symbolism in the :\I ass ( 1942 f 1954) Forewords to \Vhite's "God and the Unconscious" and \\'erblowsky's "Lucifer and Prometheus" (1952) Brother Klaus ( 1933) Psychotherapists or the Clergy (1932) Psychoanalysis and the Cure of Souls (1928) Answer to Job (1952) EASTERN RELIGION

Psychological Commentaries on "The Tibetan Book of the Great Liberation" (1939/1954) and "The Tibetan Rook of the Dead" (1935/1953) Yoga and the West (1936) Foreword to Suzuki's "Introduction to Zen Buddhism" ( 1 939) The Psychology of Eastern :\leditation (1943) The Holy Men of India: Introduction to Zimmer's "Der \Veg zum Selbst" ( 1944) Foreword to the "I Ching" ( 1 950) •12. PSYCHOLOGY AND ALCHEMY (1944) Prefatory note to the English Edition ([ 1951 ?] added 1967) Introduction to the Religious and Psychological Problems of Alchemy Individual Dream Symbolism in Relation to Alchemy ( 1936) Religious Ideas in Alchemy (1937) Epilogue t13. ALCHEMICAL STUDIES Commentary on "The Secret of the Golden Flower" (1929) The Visions of Zosimos (1938/ 1954) Paracelsus as a Spiritual Phenomenon ( 1942) The Spirit Mercuri us (1943/ 1948) The Philosophical Tree (1945/ 1954) !l4· MYSTERIUl\.1 CONIU:!':CTIONIS (1 9 ss·s6) AN INQUIRY I!';TO THE SEPARATION AND SYNTHESIS OF PSYCHIC OPPOSITES IN ALCHE!\tY

The The The Rex

Components of the Coniunctio Paradoxa Personification of the Opposites and Regina

(continued)

• Published 1953; 2nd edn., completely revised, 1968. (270 illustrations.) t Published 1968. (50 plates, 4 text figures.)

Published 1963; 2nd edn., 1970. (10 plates.)

14. (continued) Adam and Eve The Conjunction •15. THE SPIRIT IN MAN, ART, AND LITERATURE Paracelsus (1929) Paracelsus the Physician ( 1941) Sigmund Freud in His Historical Setting (19~2) In Memory of Sigmund Freud (1939) Richard Wilhelm: In Memoriam (1930) On the Relation of Analytical Psychology to Poetry (1922) Psychology and Literature (1930( 1950) "Ulysses": A Monologue (1932) Picasso (1932) t16. THE PRACTICE OF PSYCHOTHERAPY GENERAL PROBLEMS OF PSYCHOTHERAPY

Principles of Practical Psychotherapy (1935) What Is Psychotherapy? (1935) Some Aspects of Modern Psychotherapy (1930) The Aims of Psychotherapy (1931) Problems of Modern Psychotherapy (1929) Psychotherapy and a Philosophy of Life (194~) Medicine and Psychotherapy (1945) Psychotherapy Today (1945) Fundamental Questions of Psychotherapy (1951) SPECIFIC PROBLEMS OF PSYCHOTHERAPY

The Therapeutic Value of Abreaction (1921(1928) The Practical Use of Dream-Analysis (1934) The Psychology of the Transference (1946) Appendix: The Realities of Practical Psychotherapy ([1937] added, 1966) !17. THE DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY Psychic Conflicts in a Child (1910 / 1946) Introduction to Wickes's "Analyses der Kinderseele" (1927(1931) Child Development and Education (1928) Analytical Psychology and Education: Three Lectures (1926/1946) The Gifted Child (1943) The Significance of the Unconscious in Individual Education (1928) • Published 1966.

t Published 1954; 2nd edn., revised and augmented, 1g66. ! Published 1954·

(I!J illustrations.)

The Development of Personality (1934) Marriage as a Psychological Relationship (1925) 18. THE SYMBOLIC LIFE Miscellaneous Writings

19. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF C. G. JUNG'S WRITINGS 20.

GENERAL INDEX TO THE COLLECTED WORKS